Flashcards in this deck (236)

• What does the heart pump blood to?

  ---

  Lungs and rest of body

  anatomy heart

• What are the two circuits of the heart?

  ---

  Pulmonary and systemic

  anatomy heart

• What surrounds the heart?

  ---

  Pericardium

  anatomy heart

• What type of tissue is the myocardium?

  ---

  Cardiac muscle tissue

  anatomy heart

• What is the endocardium made of?

  ---

  Simple squamous epithelium

  anatomy heart

• What do auricles in the heart do?

  ---

  Reservoirs for returning blood

  anatomy heart

• What do ventricles do?

  ---

  Pump blood out

  anatomy heart

• What prevents backflow in the heart?

  ---

  Valves

  anatomy heart

• What type of valve is the bicuspid valve?

  ---

  Atrioventricular valve

  anatomy heart_valves

• What is the role of chordae tendinae?

  ---

  Reinforce valve integrity

  anatomy heart_valves

• What separates oxygenated and deoxygenated blood?

  ---

  Septa

  anatomy heart

• What is the function of veins?

  ---

  Return deoxygenated blood to heart

  anatomy blood_vessels

• What do arteries carry?

  ---

  Oxygenated blood

  anatomy blood_vessels

• What is the tunica media?

  ---

  Layer of smooth muscle in blood vessels

  anatomy blood_vessels

• What do capillaries consist of?

  ---

  Tunica intima

  anatomy blood_vessels

• What are the three tunics in blood vessels?

  ---

  Tunica Externa, Tunica Media, Tunica Intima

  anatomy blood_vessels

• What do capillaries have?

  ---

  Only the tunica intima

  anatomy capillaries

• What is the tunica externa?

  ---

  Often dense irregular connective tissue

  anatomy tunica_externa

• What primarily composes the tunica media?

  ---

  Smooth muscle tissue

  anatomy tunica_media

• What type of epithelium is the tunica intima?

  ---

  Simple squamous epithelium

  anatomy tunica_intima

• What is the Circle of Willis?

  ---

  An anastomosis providing redundant pathways to/from the brain

  anatomy circulation

• What arteries are responsible for cranial circulation?

  ---

  Internal carotid arteries, Basilar artery, Vertebral arteries

  anatomy cranial_circulation

• What does the hepatic portal system do?

  ---

  Transports nutrient-rich blood from the digestive system to the liver

  anatomy hepatic_portal

• What does the splenic vein drain?

  ---

  The spleen and part of the stomach

  anatomy splenic_vein

• What does the inferior mesenteric vein drain?

  ---

  Parts of the large intestine

  anatomy inferior_mesenteric_vein

• What does the superior mesenteric vein drain?

  ---

  Small intestine and parts of the large intestine

  anatomy superior_mesenteric_vein

• What forms the hepatic portal vein?

  ---

  Combination of splenic vein, inferior mesenteric vein, and superior mesenteric vein

  anatomy hepatic_portal_vein

• What hormones does the hypothalamus produce?

  ---

  Oxytocin and Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

  anatomy hypothalamus

• What is the function of the pituitary gland?

  ---

  Stores and releases hormones

  anatomy pituitary_gland

• What does the adenohypophysis produce?

  ---

  Six hormones

  anatomy adenohypophysis

• What are pulse points named after?

  ---

  The artery being palped

  physiology pulse

• Which pulses are most commonly measured?

  ---

  Radial and carotid

  physiology pulse

• Where is the radial pulse measured?

  ---

  Near the radius at the wrist

  physiology pulse

• Where is the carotid pulse measured?

  ---

  On neck just anterior to sternocleidomastoid

  physiology pulse

• What is pulse a measure of?

  ---

  Increased pressure in artery during systole

  physiology pulse

• What is systolic pressure?

  ---

  Upper, larger value in blood pressure (e.g. 120/80)

  physiology pressure

• What causes systolic pressure?

  ---

  Ventricular systole (contraction)

  physiology pressure

• What is diastolic pressure?

  ---

  Lower, smaller value in blood pressure (e.g. 120/80)

  physiology pressure

• What causes diastolic pressure?

  ---

  Ventricular diastole (relaxation)

  physiology pressure

• How is pressure measured?

  ---

  In mmHg (millimeters of mercury)

  physiology pressure

• What is a sphygmomanometer?

  ---

  Blood pressure cuff, pump, and dial

  physiology pressure

• What are Korotkoff sounds?

  ---

  Sounds heard when measuring blood pressure

  physiology sounds

• When is systolic pressure measured?

  ---

  When the sound of the pulse is first heard

  physiology sounds

• When is diastolic pressure measured?

  ---

  When the sound ceases or becomes muted

  physiology sounds

• What are heart sounds?

  ---

  Sounds made by valve closures

  physiology sounds

• What is S1?

  ---

  AV valves closing (lub)

  physiology sounds

• What is S2?

  ---

  Semilunar valves closing (dub)

  physiology sounds

• What causes a murmur?

  ---

  Improper valve closure

  physiology conditions

• What is atrial flutter?

  ---

  Irregular, fast atrial rhythm

  physiology conditions

• What is atrial fibrillation?

  ---

  More serious than flutter; due to sedentary lifestyle, tobacco, alcohol

  physiology conditions

• What is ventricular fibrillation?

  ---

  Most serious; related to heart disease, trauma, drugs

  physiology conditions

• What is bradycardia?

  ---

  Resting heart rate <60 bpm

  physiology conditions

• What is tachycardia?

  ---

  Resting heart rate >100 bpm

  physiology conditions

• What is hypertension?

  ---

  High blood pressure

  physiology conditions

• What is hypotension?

  ---

  Low blood pressure

  physiology conditions

• What does the cardiac conduction system do?

  ---

  Regulates heart rhythm

  physiology conduction

• What is the maximum heart rate?

  ---

  ~200 bpm

  physiology conduction

• What are Purkinje fibers?

  ---

  Stimulate apex of the heart first

  physiology conduction

• What does EKG/ECG stand for?

  ---

  Electrocardiogram

  physiology ekg

• What does the P wave represent?

  ---

  Atrial depolarization

  physiology ekg

• What does the QRS complex represent?

  ---

  Ventricular depolarization and atrial repolarization

  physiology ekg

• What does the T wave represent?

  ---

  Ventricular repolarization

  physiology ekg

• What is the P-R interval?

  ---

  Time from beginning of P to Q

  physiology ekg

• What is the S-T segment?

  ---

  Ventricles completely depolarized

  physiology ekg

• What is the cisterna chyli?

  ---

  Sac at inferior end of thoracic duct

  physiology lymphatics

• What is the function of the thymus?

  ---

  T-lymphocyte maturation

  physiology lymphatics

• What does the spleen do?

  ---

  Immunity and blood filtering and storage

  physiology lymphatics

• What are Peyer's patches?

  ---

  Lymphatic tissues found in intestines

  physiology lymphatics

• What are tonsils?

  ---

  Lymphatic nodules containing B lymphocytes

  physiology lymphatics

• What cells are involved in immunity?

  ---

  T cells, macrophages

  immunity cells

• What is the appendix attached to?

  ---

  Cecum

  anatomy appendix

• What does the appendix maintain?

  ---

  Good gut flora

  anatomy gut_flora

• What are Peyer's patches?

  ---

  Nodules in ileum

  anatomy peyers_patches

• What do lacteals absorb?

  ---

  Lipids

  anatomy absorption

• Where is the spleen located?

  ---

  In abdomen below stomach

  anatomy spleen

• What is the function of the white pulp in the spleen?

  ---

  Immune system function

  anatomy spleen

• What does the red pulp in the spleen do?

  ---

  Blood filtering and storage

  anatomy spleen

• How many lymph nodes are there approximately?

  ---

  500

  anatomy lymph_nodes

• What are the incoming vessels to lymph nodes called?

  ---

  Afferent vessels

  anatomy lymph_nodes

• What are the outgoing vessels from lymph nodes called?

  ---

  Efferent vessels

  anatomy lymph_nodes

• What supports immune cells in lymph nodes?

  ---

  Reticular fibers

  anatomy lymph_nodes

• What cells are found in the cortex of lymph nodes?

  ---

  T cells and B cells

  anatomy lymph_nodes

• What is the role of B cells in lymph nodes?

  ---

  Proliferate

  b_cells anatomy

• What do T cells do in lymph nodes?

  ---

  Stimulate immune response

  t_cells anatomy

• What is the function of the small intestine?

  ---

  Absorb nutrients and lipids

  anatomy small_intestine

• What is the size of the heart?

  ---

  Fist-sized

  anatomy heart

• What does the neurohypophysis do?

  ---

  Receives hormones from the hypothalamus

  anatomy neurohypophysis

• What is the hypothalamic-hypophyseal tract?

  ---

  Pathway for hormones from hypothalamus to neurohypophysis

  anatomy tract

• What is the anterior pituitary also called?

  ---

  Adenohypophysis

  anatomy anterior_pituitary

• What does growth hormone (GH) stimulate?

  ---

  Mitosis and overall growth

  hormones gh

• What can overproduction of GH cause?

  ---

  Gigantism in children, Acromegaly in adults

  hormones gh

• What can underproduction of GH cause?

  ---

  Pituitary Dwarfism in children

  hormones gh

• What does adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) target?

  ---

  Zona Fasciculata of the Adrenal Cortex

  hormones acth

• What does ACTH stimulate the release of?

  ---

  Glucocorticoids, especially Cortisol

  hormones acth

• What can overproduction of ACTH cause?

  ---

  Cushing's Syndrome

  hormones acth

• What can underproduction of ACTH cause?

  ---

  Addison's Disease

  hormones acth

• What does luteinizing hormone (LH) target?

  ---

  Ovaries and Testes

  hormones lh

• What does LH stimulate in females?

  ---

  Ovulation and Corpus Luteum formation

  hormones lh

• What does LH stimulate in males?

  ---

  Testosterone production

  hormones lh

• What does follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) target?

  ---

  Ovaries and Testes

  hormones fsh

• What does FSH stimulate in females?

  ---

  Follicle maturation and oogonia formation

  hormones fsh

• What does FSH stimulate in males?

  ---

  Spermatogenesis and spermatogonia formation

  hormones fsh

• What does prolactin (PRL) target?

  ---

  Mammary glands

  hormones prl

• What does prolactin stimulate?

  ---

  Milk production and maternal behavior

  hormones prl

• What effect do elevated levels of prolactin have?

  ---

  Decrease Estrogen levels

  hormones prl

• What does Prolactin target?

  ---

  Mammary glands

  hormones prolactin

• What does Prolactin stimulate?

  ---

  Milk production

  hormones prolactin

• What behavior does Prolactin stimulate?

  ---

  Maternal behavior

  hormones prolactin

• What does elevated Prolactin decrease in females?

  ---

  Estrogen levels

  hormones prolactin

• What does elevated Prolactin decrease in males?

  ---

  Testosterone levels

  hormones prolactin

• Which hormone targets the Thyroid Gland?

  ---

  Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)

  hormones tsh

• What does TSH stimulate?

  ---

  Thyroid Hormone (TH) production

  hormones tsh

• What are the two main forms of Thyroid Hormone?

  ---

  T3 and T4

  hormones thyroid

• What condition results from overproduction of TH?

  ---

  Hyperthyroidism

  hormones thyroid

• What condition results from underproduction of TH?

  ---

  Hypothyroidism

  hormones thyroid

• What is the technical term for the posterior pituitary?

  ---

  Neurohypophysis

  anatomy pituitary

• What does Oxytocin target during labor?

  ---

  Uterus

  hormones oxytocin

• What does Oxytocin cause in mammary glands?

  ---

  Milk ejection

  hormones oxytocin

• What behavior increases Oxytocin levels?

  ---

  Snuggling

  hormones oxytocin

• What does Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) target?

  ---

  Kidney tubules

  hormones adh

• What does ADH increase?

  ---

  Water reabsorption

  hormones adh

• What condition results from underproduction of ADH?

  ---

  Diabetes Insipidus

  hormones adh

• What do the parathyroid glands target?

  ---

  Thyroid gland

  anatomy glands

• What hormone decreases blood calcium levels?

  ---

  Calcitonin

  hormones calcitonin

• What hormone increases blood calcium levels?

  ---

  Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)

  hormones pth

• What does Aldosterone help control?

  ---

  Electrolyte levels

  hormones aldosterone

• What does Aldosterone increase reabsorption of?

  ---

  Na, Cl, and H2O

  hormones aldosterone

• What does Cortisol help regulate?

  ---

  Blood

  hormones cortisol

• What is reabsorbed in the kidneys?

  ---

  Na, Cl, H2O

  physiology kidneys

• What does the Zona Fasciculata produce?

  ---

  Glucocorticoids, mainly Cortisol

  hormones adrenal

• What does Cortisol help regulate?

  ---

  Blood sugar levels, reduces inflammation

  hormones adrenal

• What process does Cortisol promote?

  ---

  Gluconeogenesis

  hormones adrenal

• What does the Zona Reticularis produce?

  ---

  Gonadocorticoids

  hormones adrenal

• What are Gonadocorticoids converted to?

  ---

  Testosterone and Estrogen

  hormones adrenal

• What hormone is produced by the adrenal medulla?

  ---

  Epinephrine (Adrenaline)

  hormones adrenal

• What is the function of Epinephrine?

  ---

  Fight or flight response

  hormones adrenal

• What does Norepinephrine do?

  ---

  Similar effects to Epinephrine

  hormones adrenal

• What can overproduction of Norepinephrine lead to?

  ---

  Hypertension, heart failure, kidney disease

  hormones adrenal

• Where is the pancreas located?

  ---

  Near stomach/spleen in the mesentery

  anatomy pancreas

• What do pancreatic islets produce?

  ---

  Endocrine products

  hormones pancreas

• What hormone does the pancreas produce to increase blood sugar?

  ---

  Glucagon

  hormones pancreas

• What cells produce Insulin?

  ---

  Beta Cells in the islets

  hormones pancreas

• What does Insulin do?

  ---

  Decreases blood sugar levels

  hormones pancreas

• What hormone aids in implantation and gestation?

  ---

  Progesterone

  hormones ovaries

• What is the role of Estrogen?

  ---

  Thickens endometrium, develops female characteristics

  hormones ovaries

• What do Activin and Inhibin do?

  ---

  Antagonistic hormones regulating FSH

  hormones ovaries

• Where are the Testes located?

  ---

  In the scrotum outside body wall

  anatomy testes

• What hormone is produced by Interstitial Cells?

  ---

  Testosterone

  hormones testes

• What is the effect of Testosterone?

  ---

  Development of male characteristics

  hormones testes

• What do the Pineal Gland and Thymus have in common?

  ---

  Both produce hormones

  hormones glands

• What does Melatonin regulate?

  ---

  Sleep and day/night cycle

  hormones pineal

• What hormones does the Thymus produce?

  ---

  Thymosin and Thymopoietin

  hormones thymus

• What are Innate Defenses?

  ---

  Nonspecific defenses against non-specific threats

  immune defenses

• What hormones are produced by the thymus?

  ---

  Thymosin and Thymopoietin

  hormones thymus endocrine

• What is the function of Thymosin and Thymopoietin?

  ---

  Various immune system functions

  immune_system hormones

• What are innate defenses?

  ---

  Act against any non-self invaders

  immune_system innate_defenses

• What is the first line of defense in the immune system?

  ---

  Surface Defenses; skin and mucous membranes

  immune_system defense

• What are the second line of innate defenses?

  ---

  Internal Defenses

  immune_system innate_defenses

• What types of cells are phagocytes?

  ---

  Neutrophils, Monocytes, and Macrophages

  immune_system phagocytes

• What do Natural Killer (NK) Cells do?

  ---

  Kill virus-infected and cancer cells

  immune_system nk_cells

• What is apoptosis?

  ---

  Programmed cell death

  immune_system apoptosis

• What does inflammation cause?

  ---

  Redness, heat, swelling, and pain

  immune_system inflammation

• What is leukocytosis?

  ---

  4 to 5x increase in neutrophil count after injury

  immune_system leukocytosis

• What is margination?

  ---

  Neutrophils cling to capillary walls

  immune_system margination

• What is diapedesis?

  ---

  Neutrophils flatten and squeeze through cracks

  immune_system diapedesis

• What is positive chemotaxis?

  ---

  Phagocytes move towards chemical signals

  immune_system chemotaxis

• What are interferons?

  ---

  Released by virus-infected cells, protect nearby cells

  immune_system interferons

• What is the complement system?

  ---

  20+ plasma proteins that lyse microbes/amplify response

  immune_system complement

• What causes fever in the immune response?

  ---

  Pyrogens released by leukocytes and macrophages

  immune_system fever

• What are adaptive defenses?

  ---

  Act against specific, recognizable invaders

  immune_system adaptive_defenses

• What is humoral immunity?

  ---

  Lymphocytes produce Antibody

  immune_system humoral_immunity

• What is cell-mediated immunity?

  ---

  Immune cells attack infected self cells

  immune_system cell-mediated_immunity

• What are antigens?

  ---

  Antibody-generating molecules, usually non-self

  immune_system antigens

• What are complete antigens?

  ---

  Immunogenic and Reactive

  immune_system antigens

• What are self-antigens?

  ---

  Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) proteins

  immune_system self-antigens

• Where do B and T lymphocytes originate?

  ---

  Red bone marrow

  immune_system lymphocytes

• Where do T cells mature?

  ---

  In the thymus

  immune_system t_cells

• What is immunocompetence?

  ---

  Ability to recognize and bind to an antigen

  immune_system immunocompetence

• What is self-tolerance?

  ---

  Unresponsiveness to self-antigens

  immune_system self-tolerance

• What is the survival rate of T cells after selection?

  ---

  2% survival rate

  immune_system t_cells

• What are antigen-presenting cells (APCs)?

  ---

  Eat antigens and present fragment to T cells

  immune_system apcs

• What activates naïve T cells?

  ---

  Dendritic Cells and Macrophages

  immune_system t_cells

• What do activated T cells do?

  ---

  Activate macrophages

  immune_system t_cells

• How do B cells get activated?

  ---

  Present to Helper T cells

  immune_system b_cells

• What do cells and macrophages do to Naïve T cells?

  ---

  Present to and activate Naïve T cells

  t_cells immunology

• What do activated T cells do?

  ---

  Activate macrophages

  t_cells immunology

• What do B cells present to?

  ---

  Helper T cells

  b_cells immunology

• What do Helper T cells do?

  ---

  Activate B cells

  t_cells immunology

• What is Humoral Immunity?

  ---

  B cells and antibody fight specific invaders

  humoral_immunity immunology

• What happens to Naïve B cells when they bind to an antigen?

  ---

  Become active and antigen-specific

  b_cells immunology

• What is Clonal Selection?

  ---

  Forms armies of B cells

  b_cells immunology

• What do most activated B cells become?

  ---

  Plasma Cells

  b_cells immunology

• What do Plasma Cells do?

  ---

  Produce antibodies

  b_cells immunology

• What do fewer activated B cells become?

  ---

  Memory Cells

  b_cells immunology

• What is the role of Memory Cells?

  ---

  Provide Immunological Memory

  memory_cells immunology

• What characterizes the Primary Response?

  ---

  Slow and weak after 1st exposure

  immunology responses

• What characterizes the Secondary Response?

  ---

  Fast and strong after more exposures

  immunology responses

• What is Active Immunity?

  ---

  Your B cells make their own antibodies and memory cells

  active_immunity immunology

• How can Active Immunity be acquired?

  ---

  From exposure to pathogen or from a Vaccine

  active_immunity immunology

• What are Vaccines?

  ---

  Killed or weakened antigenic determinants

  vaccines immunology

• What is Passive Immunity?

  ---

  Antibody received from an outside source

  passive_immunity immunology

• How can Passive Immunity be acquired?

  ---

  Via placenta, mother’s milk, injection

  passive_immunity immunology

• What are antibodies also known as?

  ---

  Immunoglobulins (Igs)

  antibodies immunology

• How many classes of antibodies are there?

  ---

  5 antibody classes

  antibodies immunology

• What is IgM?

  ---

  1st class released during primary response

  antibodies immunology

• What is the function of IgA?

  ---

  Common in body secretions

  antibodies immunology

• What is the role of IgD?

  ---

  Common on B cell surfaces as antigen receptor

  antibodies immunology

• What is the most abundant plasma antibody?

  ---

  IgG

  antibodies immunology

• What does IgE trigger?

  ---

  Histamine release, inflammatory response, allergies

  antibodies immunology

• What are the functions of antibodies?

  ---

  Neutralization, agglutination, precipitation, complement activation

  antibodies immunology

• What do monoclonal antibodies do?

  ---

  Grown in lab from descendents of a single cell

  monoclonal_antibodies immunology

• What are monoclonal antibodies used for?

  ---

  Diagnosis of pregnancy and certain cancers

  monoclonal_antibodies immunology

• What is Cell-Mediated Immunity?

  ---

  Involves T cells attacking defective cells

  cell-mediated_immunity immunology

• What do CD4 cells usually become?

  ---

  Helper T cells

  t_cells immunology

• What do CD8 cells become?

  ---

  Cytotoxic T cells

  t_cells immunology

• What do Class I MHCs present?

  ---

  Endogenous Antigens to CD8 T cells

  mhc immunology

• What do Class II MHCs present?

  ---

  Exogenous Antigens to CD4 T cells

  mhc immunology

• What is required for T cell activation?

  ---

  Antigen Binding and Co-stimulation

  t_cells immunology

• What are cytokines?

  ---

  Group of immune molecules with various functions

  cytokines immunology

• What do Helper T cells do?

  ---

  Activate macrophages, B and T cells

  t_cells immunology

• What do Cytotoxic T cells do?

  ---

  Directly attack infected cells

  t_cells immunology

• What do macrophages, B and T cells do?

  ---

  Activate immune response

  immunology immune_response

• What do cytotoxic T cells do?

  ---

  Directly attack and kill infected cells

  immunology cytotoxic_t_cells

• What do regulatory T cells do?

  ---

  Suppress immune response after activation

  immunology regulatory_t_cells

• What is needed for organ transplants?

  ---

  Close matching of surface antigens

  immunology transplants

• What therapy is often needed for organ transplants?

  ---

  Immunosuppressive therapy

  immunology transplants

• What is a consequence of immunosuppressive therapy?

  ---

  Increased vulnerability to infections

  immunology health

• What are immunodeficiencies?

  ---

  Conditions that impair immune function

  immunology disorders

• What are SCIDs?

  ---

  Severe Combined Immunodeficiency Syndromes

  immunology disorders

• What is Hodgkin’s Disease?

  ---

  A B cell cancer

  immunology cancer

• What causes AIDS?

  ---

  Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)

  immunology hiv

• What do antibodies and cytotoxic T cells attack in autoimmune diseases?

  ---

  Own tissues

  immunology autoimmune

• Name an example of an autoimmune disease.

  ---

  Multiple sclerosis

  immunology autoimmune

• What are hypersensitivities?

  ---

  Immune responses to perceived harmless threats

  immunology hypersensitivity

• What is a common example of hypersensitivity?

  ---

  Allergies

  immunology hypersensitivity

• What is the most serious danger of hypersensitivity?

  ---

  Anaphylactic shock

  immunology hypersensitivity