What is the hydrocarbon skeleton in organic molecules?
A framework of carbon atoms that can contain functional groups.
What are some functional groups found in organic molecules?
What is the significance of structural formulas in organic chemistry?
They show the arrangement of atoms and bonding in organic molecules.
What are the IUPAC rules used for?
To deduce structural formulas and name organic compounds.
What types of compounds can IUPAC rules be applied to?
What are structural isomers?
Compounds with the same molecular formula but different arrangements of atoms.
What are stereoisomers?
Compounds with the same structural formula but different arrangements of atoms in space.
What is geometrical isomerism?
A type of stereoisomerism in non-cyclic alkenes, involving cis and trans configurations.
What influences the physical properties of organic compounds?
Intermolecular forces: dispersion forces, dipole-dipole interactions, and hydrogen bonds.
What is the main element in organic compounds?
Carbon
What is a hydrocarbon?
An organic compound consisting only of carbon and hydrogen atoms.
What is the main chain in a hydrocarbon?
The longest chain of carbon atoms in a hydrocarbon molecule.
What does nomenclature refer to in organic chemistry?
The system for naming organic compounds based on their structure.
What do hydrocarbons consist of?
A main chain of carbon atoms bonded together with hydrogen atoms.
What is the role of carbon's valence electrons in bonding?
Carbon covalently bonds with other atoms to achieve a stable octet of electrons.
What are some examples of organic compounds?
What trends can be predicted in a homologous series?
Trends in melting and boiling points.
What affects the volatility and solubility of organic compounds?
The type of functional groups present.
What is the IUPAC used for?
To name organic compounds.
What is a prefix in organic nomenclature?
A group of letters added to the beginning of a word; the first part of an organic compound’s name.
What do the prefixes for 5–10 carbons correspond to?
They are the same as those used for naming polygons in mathematics.
What is the octet rule?
The tendency of carbon atoms to share electrons to achieve 8 electrons in the valence energy level.
What is the prefix for 1 carbon?
Meth
What is the prefix for 2 carbons?
Eth
What is the prefix for 3 carbons?
Prop
What is the prefix for 4 carbons?
But
What is the prefix for 5 carbons?
Pent
What is the prefix for 6 carbons?
Hex
What is the prefix for 7 carbons?
Hept
What is the prefix for 8 carbons?
Oct
What is the prefix for 9 carbons?
Non
What is the prefix for 10 carbons?
Dec
What does the suffix ‘ane’ indicate?
The hydrocarbon contains only single covalent bonds; it is an alkane.
What does the suffix ‘ene’ indicate?
The hydrocarbon contains a double bond; it is an alkene.
What does the suffix ‘yne’ indicate?
The hydrocarbon contains a triple bond; it is an alkyne.
What is an alkane?
A class of organic compound that contains single bonds between carbon atoms.
What is an alkene?
A class of organic compound that contains one or more double bonds between carbon atoms.
What is an alkyne?
A class of organic compound that contains one or more triple bonds between carbon atoms.
What is a multiple bond?
A double or triple bond in an organic compound.
What defines a saturated hydrocarbon?
It only has single carbon–carbon bonds and contains a maximum number of hydrogen atoms.
What are locants used for?
To pinpoint the location of double and triple bonds in organic compounds.
How are locants numbered?
Each carbon atom is assigned a number, starting with 1 for the first carbon on the end of the main chain.
How is the location of a multiple bond indicated?
By the lower number of the two carbon atoms in the bond, included in the compound’s name with hyphens.
What is a locant in organic chemistry?
A number or letter indicating the position of a substituent or functional group within an organic compound.
Where must the locant be placed in a hydrocarbon name?
It must immediately precede the component of the molecule that it relates to.
What are hydrocarbon substituents?
Carbon (and hydrogen) atoms that branch off the main chain of a hydrocarbon.
How do you name a hydrocarbon with a substituent?
Number the carbons in the main chain and indicate the position of the substituent as a prefix ending with ‘yl’.
What is the name of the molecule with the substituent on carbon 3?
3-methylhexane.
What is the main chain prefix for a hydrocarbon with five carbon atoms?
The prefix is ‘pent’.
What suffix is used for hydrocarbons with a triple bond?
The suffix is ‘-yne’.
What is the name of the molecule with a triple bond and a one-carbon substituent on carbon 3?
3-methylpent-1-yne.
How is ‘but’ pronounced in organic chemistry nomenclature?
‘But’ is pronounced ‘b-you-t’.
How are multiple substituents named in a molecule?
Name substituents in alphabetical order; use multipliers for more than one of the same type.
What does the multiplier 'di' mean in organic nomenclature?
'Di' means 2.
What is the lowest possible locant assignment rule?
Assign the suffix the lowest possible locant when numbering carbon atoms.
What is the name of the molecule with three methyl substituents?
2,2,4-trimethylpentane.
What is the name of the molecule with methyl groups at 2,2,4?
2,2,4-trimethylpentane
How do you list substituents when naming a hydrocarbon?
List them in alphabetical order.
What is the main chain of a hydrocarbon?
The longest continuous chain of carbon atoms.
What prefix is used for cyclic hydrocarbons?
cyclo
What is cyclohexane?
A ring of six carbons.
What is the name of a cyclic hydrocarbon with one double bond?
cyclohex-1-ene
What is the name of the molecule with two methyl groups and one ethyl group in a ring?
1-ethyl-6,6-dimethylcyclohex-1-ene
What defines aromatic compounds?
They are cyclic compounds with specific bonding qualities.
What is the most common example of an aromatic compound?
Benzene
What causes the stability of aromatic compounds?
Delocalisation of electrons.
How can benzene be represented?
With alternating double bonds or a circle to indicate delocalised electrons.
What is a hydrocarbon?
A compound consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon atoms.
What are the components of a hydrocarbon name?
Prefix (indicates carbon chain length), suffix (indicates functional group), locant (position of functional group).
What is a functional group?
An atom or group of atoms in an organic compound that determines its reactivity.
What is the hydroxyl functional group?
An –OH group, consisting of an oxygen atom and a hydrogen atom joined by a single bond.
What is the carbonyl functional group?
An oxygen atom double bonded to a carbon atom in the main chain (–CO–).
What is the carboxyl functional group?
A hydroxyl group attached to the carbon of a carbonyl group (–COOH).
What is an alcohol?
A class of organic compound that contains a hydroxyl functional group (–OH).
How do you name an alcohol?
Identify the main chain, omit the final 'e', and add 'ol' as a suffix, preceded by the locant.
What is a primary alcohol?
An alcohol where the carbon bonded to the hydroxyl group is only bonded to one other carbon.
What is a secondary alcohol?
An alcohol where the carbon bonded to the hydroxyl group is bonded to two other carbons.
What is the significance of IUPAC rules?
They provide a standardized way to name organic compounds, ensuring clarity and consistency in communication.
What are the first three alkenes?
What is the structure of benzene?
Benzene can be drawn with alternating double bonds or as a circle indicating delocalized electrons.
What is a primary alcohol?
An alcohol in which the carbon bonded to the –OH group is bonded to one other carbon.
What is a secondary alcohol?
An alcohol in which the carbon bonded to the –OH group is bonded to two other carbons.
What is a tertiary alcohol?
An alcohol in which the carbon bonded to the –OH group is bonded to three other carbons.
What are aldehydes?
Organic compounds with a carbonyl group on the end of the main chain (carbon 1).
What are ketones?
Organic compounds with a carbonyl group within the main chain.
How do you name an aldehyde?
Identify the main chain, omit the final ‘e’, and add ‘al’ as a suffix.
How do you name a ketone?
Identify the main chain, omit the final ‘e’, add ‘one’ as a suffix preceded by the locant.
What is a carboxylic acid?
An organic compound with a carboxyl functional group (COOH).
How do you name a carboxylic acid?
Count carbons, omit final ‘e’, and add ‘oic acid’. Carboxyl carbon is carbon 1.
What are esters?
Organic compounds derived from a carboxylic acid and an alcohol, containing a carbonyl group attached to an oxygen.
How do you name an ester?
Name from the alcohol and carboxylic acid; include suffix ‘oate’ for the chain attached to carbonyl.
What is the example of a ketone given?
The molecule is butan-2-one.
What is a carboxylic acid?
A class of organic compound that contains a carboxyl functional group.
What is an ester?
A class of organic compound that contains a carbonyl attached to an oxygen, which is bonded to another carbon.
How do you name an ester?
Count carbons in the chain attached to carbonyl, name it and add 'oate'. Count carbons in chain attached to oxygen, name it and add 'yl'.
What is the name of the molecule with a carbonyl on a four-carbon chain and a methyl substituent?
Methyl butanoate
What is an amine?
A class of organic compound that contains the amino functional group and ends with 'amine'.
How are amines classified?
Amines are classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary based on the number of alkyl groups bonded to nitrogen.
What is the naming rule for amines?
Identify and name each alkyl group, place them in alphabetical order, and add the suffix 'amine'.
What is an amide?
A class of organic compound that contains amine and carbonyl functional groups adjacent to each other.
How do you name an amide?
Identify the main chain, number the carbonyl carbon as carbon 1, and add the suffix 'amide'.
What are the types of amines?
Primary, secondary, and tertiary based on the number of alkyl groups attached to nitrogen.
What are the types of amides?
Primary, secondary, and tertiary based on the number of alkyl groups attached to the carbonyl and amine.
What is the suffix for amides?
The suffix for amides is 'amide'.
What does N represent in complex amides?
N represents bonds to the nitrogen atom.
What is the structure of butanamide?
What is the structure of N-Methylpropanamide?
What is the carboxylic acid component of N-ethylethanamide?
Ethanoic acid
What is the functional group of a nitrile?
Carbon triple-bonded to nitrogen
How is a simple nitrile named?
Includes the suffix 'nitrile'
What is the example of a five-carbon nitrile?
4-methylpentanenitrile
What are haloalkanes?
Organic compounds containing halogens
How is a haloalkane named?
Halogen's name shortened and ends with 'o'
What is dichloromethane?
Methane bonded to two chlorine atoms
What are polyfunctional compounds?
Complex organic compounds with more than one functional group
What is the principal functional group?
The functional group represented in the molecule’s suffix
What is the order of priority for carboxylic acids?
Prefix: Carboxy; Suffix: -oic acid
What is the order of priority for amides?
Prefix: Carbamoyl; Suffix: -amide
What is the order of priority for nitriles?
Prefix: Cyano; Suffix: -nitrile
What is the order of priority for alcohols?
Prefix: Hydroxy; Suffix: -ol
What is the order of priority for amines?
Prefix: Amino; Suffix: -amine
What is the importance of order of priority in naming compounds?
Determines principal and subordinate functional groups
What are the types of structural formulas for organic compounds?
What do extended structural formulas show?
Arrangement and bonding of atoms in a molecule without ambiguity.
How are single, double, and triple bonds represented in extended structural formulas?
What angles reflect electron repulsion in bonds?
What is a condensed structural formula?
A formula that provides information about carbon arrangements but not bonding between atoms.
What is the condensed structural formula of ethene?
CH2CH2
How many bonds do carbon and hydrogen atoms typically form?
What do brackets in condensed structural formulas represent?
Repeating patterns or substituents that branch in the organic molecule.
What is the structural formula of pentane?
CH3(CH2)3CH3
What is a line structural formula?
A formula drawn as a zigzag line representing bonding and some atoms present.
How are carbon atoms represented in line structural formulas?
Carbon atoms are represented by the ends and corners of the diagonal lines.
What atoms are typically not written in line structural formulas?
Hydrogen atoms (except for hydroxyl and amine functional groups).
What is a structural formula?
A representation of an organic compound showing arrangement and bonding of atoms.
What is a study tip for counting carbon atoms in line structural formulas?
Place a dot on each 'end' and 'bend' of the line structural formulas.
What is the structural formula?
A representation showing the arrangement of atoms in a molecule and the bonds between them.
What are the steps to interpret a condensed structural formula?
What are the extended and condensed structural formulas of diethylamine?
Extended: - H2N-CH2-CH3 - CH2-CH3 Condensed: - C4H11N
What are the extended and condensed structural formulas of 3-methylbut-1-yne?
Extended: - H-C≡C-CH(CH3)-CH2-CH3 Condensed: - C5H8
What are the extended and condensed structural formulas of 4-oxo propyl hexanoate?
Extended: - CH3-CH2-CO-CH2-CH2-COO-CH2-CH3 Condensed: - C8H14O2
What are the extended and condensed structural formulas of N-methyloctanamide?
Extended: - CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CO-NH-CH3 Condensed: - C9H19NO
What is a structural isomer?
Compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural formulas.
What are the boiling and melting points of butane?
Boiling point: -1°C, Melting point: -138°C.
What are the boiling and melting points of 2-methylpropane?
Boiling point: -12°C, Melting point: -159°C.
What are stereoisomers?
Compounds with the same molecular formula and structural formula but different arrangements of atoms in space.
What are geometrical isomers?
Stereoisomers with different arrangements of atoms around a rigid double bond.
What are the two forms of geometrical isomers?
Cis (same side) and Trans (opposite sides) of the double bond.
What is the example of cis and trans isomers in but-2-ene?
Cis: both methyl groups on the same side; Trans: methyl groups on opposite sides.
What are isomers?
Two or more organic compounds that have the same atoms but a different arrangement and bonding.
What are stereoisomers?
Two or more organic compounds that have the same atoms and bonding but a different spatial arrangement.
What are geometrical isomers?
Two organic compounds that have different arrangements of atoms around a rigid double bond.
What is the melting point of cis-but-2-ene?
–139°C
What is the melting point of trans-but-2-ene?
–106°C
What do geometrical isomers require around the double bond?
At least two substituents other than hydrogen.
What are enantiomers?
A type of stereoisomer with an asymmetrical carbon atom and four different substituents.
What is the arrangement of substituents in enantiomers?
They are mirror images of each other and non-superimposable.
How are enantiomers represented in 3D?
Using solid and dashed wedge-shaped bonds.
What is a real-world example of enantiomers?
CHFClBr and CH3CH(OH)CH2CH3.
What is the Thalidomide tragedy?
Thalidomide was a sedative linked to severe birth defects due to its enantiomers.
When was Thalidomide first synthesized?
In 1954 by Chemie Grünenthal.
What was Thalidomide initially used for?
As a sedative for treating flu, stress, anxiety, and morning sickness.
Why was Thalidomide never approved in the US?
Due to concerns from the Food and Drug Administration.
What was thalidomide used to treat in the first trimester?
Morning sickness
Why was thalidomide never approved in the US?
Due to the Food and Drug Administration regulations
When did reports of numbness in patients appear?
Early 1959
What deformities were reported by 1960?
Deformities in newborn babies
What is phocomelia?
Malformed limbs in children
How many children were born with phocomelia worldwide?
Approximately 10,000
What does thalidomide inhibit in embryos and foetuses?
New blood vessel development
What is thalidomide's chemical nature?
A mixture of two enantiomers
What effects does one isomer of thalidomide have?
Sedative effects
What effects does the other isomer of thalidomide have?
Teratogenic effects (causes birth defects)
What can happen even with a pure sample of the non-toxic enantiomer?
It can be converted into the toxic enantiomer
What rare conditions is thalidomide now used to treat?
Leprosy and multiple myeloma
What is a geometrical isomer?
Isomers with different spatial arrangements of atoms
What role does chirality play in stereoisomers?
Determines the non-superimposable mirror images
What are the structural isomers of C5H12?
What is the IUPAC name for the first isomer given?
2-Pentene
What is the IUPAC name for the second isomer given?
3-Pentene
What are the two geometrical isomers of pent-2-ene?
Are pentane and cyclopentane isomers?
Yes, they are structural isomers
Are 2-Methylbutane and pent-2-ene isomers?
Yes, they are structural isomers
What is the difference between 2-Fluorobutan-2-ol and 3-fluorobutan-2-ol?
They are positional isomers
What is a homologous series?
A group of organic compounds with the same functional group
What increases with each member of a homologous series?
Molecular mass increases by approximately 14 amu
What are the first four members of the alkane series?
How does the number of carbon atoms affect structural isomers in alkanes?
Increases the number of possible structural isomers
What are the three alkanes with only one structural isomer?
Name two alkanes with over 1000 structural isomers.
What properties do organic compounds depend on?
Atoms present and their arrangement
What are characteristic physical properties of organic compounds?
Melting point, boiling point, solubility
What is the increase in mass of each homologous series?
Approximately 14 amu
What effect does the increase in electrons have on melting and boiling points?
Increases melting and boiling points due to greater intermolecular attraction
What is the melting point of methane?
–183 °C
What is the boiling point of ethane?
–89 °C
What is the melting point of butane?
–135 °C
What is the boiling point of propane?
–42 °C
What trend is observed in the melting and boiling points of alkanes?
Increase in carbon atoms generally leads to higher melting and boiling points
Why do hydrocarbons have the lowest melting and boiling points?
They contain only carbon and hydrogen atoms joined by non-polar bonds
What type of forces do non-polar molecules experience?
Weak dispersion forces
How do branched alkanes compare to straight-chained alkanes in boiling points?
Branched alkanes tend to have lower boiling points
What is the boiling point of ethene?
–104 °C
What is the boiling point of propyne?
–23 °C
Why are hydrocarbons insoluble in water?
Due to their non-polar nature compared to water's polar nature
What functional group do alcohols contain?
A hydroxyl functional group
What type of bonding do alcohols participate in?
Hydrogen bonding
How do the boiling points of alcohols compare to hydrocarbons?
Alcohols have significantly higher boiling points than hydrocarbons
What happens to the volatility of alcohols as they increase in size?
Volatility decreases as size increases
What is the boiling point of propan-1-ol?
97 °C
What is the boiling point of propane-1,2,3-triol?
290 °C
How many hydroxyl groups do diols and triols have?
Diols have two and triols have three hydroxyl groups
What is the boiling point of propan-1-ol?
97°C
What is the boiling point of propane-1,2,3-triol?
290°C
What is a characteristic of volatile substances?
They evaporate easily at room temperature.
What is the boiling point of methanol?
65°C
What is the boiling point of ethan-1-ol?
78°C
What is the boiling point of butan-1-ol?
117°C
What is the boiling point of pentan-1-ol?
138°C
What is the boiling point of ethane-1,2-diol?
198°C
What is the boiling point of methanoic acid?
101°C
What is the boiling point of ethanoic acid?
118°C
What is the boiling point of propanoic acid?
141°C
What is the boiling point of butanoic acid?
164°C
What is the boiling point of pentanoic acid?
186°C
How does the solubility of alcohols change with carbon atoms?
Solubility in water decreases with more than three carbons.
What functional group do aldehydes and ketones contain?
A carbonyl functional group.
Why do aldehydes and ketones have lower boiling points than alcohols?
They lack a hydroxyl functional group.
What are the first three members of the ketones and aldehydes homologous series?
They are miscible in water.
What allows carboxylic acids to have higher boiling points than alcohols?
Both carbonyl and hydroxyl groups participate in hydrogen bonding.
What is the boiling point of propanal?
49°C
What is the boiling point of propanone?
56°C
What is the boiling point of butanal?
76°C
What is the boiling point of pentanal?
103°C
What is the boiling point of butan-2-one?
80°C
What is the boiling point of pentan-2-one?
102°C
What is the boiling point of pentan-3-one?
102°C
How do esters interact with water?
The first three members are soluble in water.
What can esters form with water?
Hydrogen bonds
Which esters are soluble in water?
The first three members of the homologous series
What physical properties do esters share with aldehydes and ketones?
Solubility in non-polar organic solvents
What is the boiling point of Methyl methanoate?
32 °C
What is the boiling point of Methyl ethanoate?
57 °C
What is the boiling point of Methyl propanoate?
80 °C
What is the boiling point of Ethyl methanoate?
54 °C
What is the boiling point of Ethyl ethanoate?
77 °C
What functional groups do primary and secondary amines have?
Nitrogen and hydrogen atoms
Why do primary amines have higher boiling points than secondary amines?
They can form more hydrogen bonds
What type of bonds do tertiary amines contain?
Only N–C bonds
How does the solubility of amines in water compare to aldehydes and ketones?
Comparable solubility due to hydrogen bonding
What happens to amine solubility in water beyond the fourth member of the homologous series?
Drops off significantly
What gives amides their high melting and boiling points?
Hydrogen bonds and strong dipole-dipole interactions
What is the boiling point of Trimethylamine?
3 °C
What is the boiling point of Ethanamide?
221 °C
How does atomic mass affect the volatility of halogens?
Increases atomic mass decreases volatility
What is the trend of boiling points in haloalkanes?
R-I > R-Br > R-Cl > R-F
How does the size of the alkyl group affect haloalkane volatility?
As size increases, volatility decreases
What is a homologous series?
A series of compounds with the same functional group and similar properties
What role do intermolecular forces play in organic compounds?
They determine physical properties like boiling and melting points
What is a homologous series?
A series of organic compounds with the same functional group and similar chemical properties, differing by a repeating unit (e.g., -CH2-).
What role do intermolecular forces play in organic compounds?
They determine physical properties like boiling/melting points, solubility, and viscosity.
What does the term volatile mean?
A substance that easily vaporizes at normal temperatures and pressures.
What is a non-polar solvent?
A solvent that does not have a significant charge distribution, allowing it to dissolve non-polar compounds.
Why do some organic compounds dissolve in non-polar solvents instead of water?
Because they are non-polar and do not interact well with water's polar molecules.
What does miscible mean?
Two liquids that can mix in any proportion without separating into two phases.
What is the predicted boiling point of pentane?
Based on trends in boiling points of alkanes, it is approximately 36 °C.
What is the significance of trendlines in boiling points of organic compounds?
They indicate how boiling points change with different functional groups and carbon chain lengths.
What are the properties of ethylene glycol?
It has a high boiling point, low freezing point, and acts as an antifreeze and solvent.
What is the significance of hydrophobicity in a homologous series?
It affects solubility and interactions with water, influencing the behavior of compounds in biological systems.
What is biotechnology?
The use and manipulation of biological processes to develop products like medicines, biofuels, and genetically modified organisms.
What is selective breeding?
Choosing specific plants or animals to reproduce based on desired traits, enhancing certain characteristics.
What is bioinformatics?
A subfield of biotechnology that analyzes biological data using computational techniques.
What is the Protein Data Bank?
A major database storing genetic sequences and protein structures available for public access.
What is the role of genomic sequences in diseases?
They link specific genes to diseases, aiding in understanding genetic disorders.
What are genomic sequences used for?
To link particular genes to particular diseases.
Which genes are associated with a high risk of breast and ovarian cancer?
BRCA1 and BRCA2
Which population was studied for a high incidence of breast cancer?
Ashkenazi Jewish population in Washington DC
How many volunteers had alterations to their BRCA genes?
5000 volunteers
What is a gene?
A segment of DNA on a chromosome.
What is a genome?
All the DNA in a person’s set of chromosomes.
What is an amino acid?
An organic compound that contains an amino and a carboxyl functional group.
What are nucleic acids?
DNA or RNA.
What is artificial selection?
The control of breeding of plants and animals to produce characteristics favourable to humans.
What can gene alterations cause in proteins?
A protein to be shortened, changing its three-dimensional structure.
How can people with a family history of breast cancer be screened?
Using a simple blood test to sequence their genome.
What is pharmacogenomics?
A field that analyses a person’s genomic sequence for individualised treatment.
What is the traditional approach to medication prescription?
Trial and error to find suitable medications.
For which conditions is pharmacogenomics currently used?
HIV, colon cancer, lymphoblastic leukemia, breast cancer.
What is toxicity?
The degree to which a medicine causes adverse side effects.
What is efficacy?
The ability of a medication to produce the desired result.
What are hydrocarbons?
The simplest organic compounds, containing only carbon and hydrogen atoms.
What does the nomenclature of hydrocarbons depend on?
What are the organic compounds containing oxygen atoms?
How are alcohols classified?
What are the organic compounds containing nitrogen atoms?
How are amines classified?
According to the number of carbon atoms directly bonded to nitrogen.
What are organic compounds containing halogen atoms called?
Haloalkanes
How are functional groups treated in haloalkanes?
The halogen is treated as a substituent, not the principal functional group.
What do structural formulas represent?
The atom arrangement and bonding of organic compounds.
What do extended structural formulas provide?
All information about atom arrangement and bonding.
What do condensed structural formulas provide?
Information about the atom arrangement only.
What do line structural formulas provide?
Information about bonding and limited atom arrangement.
What are structural isomers?
Same molecular formula but different atom arrangement and names.
What are stereoisomers?
Same structural formula but different spatial arrangement.
How can stereoisomers be classified?
Into geometrical isomers and enantiomers.
What do members of a homologous series have in common?
Same functional group but vary in the size of the main chain.
What happens to melting and boiling points as the main chain increases in size?
Melting and boiling points increase.
What does biological data include?
What has enabled the study of functional group interactions within biological molecules?
The breadth of biological data available to the public.
What are some developments in biotechnology?
What is an alkene best described as?
A hydrocarbon consisting of one or more double carbon bonds.
What is a functional group best described as?
A group of atoms that is the location of reactivity in an organic compound.
What does a condensed structural formula provide information about?
The bonding and atom arrangement.
What do the physical properties of organic compounds include?
How is biotechnology best defined?
The use and manipulation of biological processes.
What is the study of interactions between proteins and nucleic acids called?
Biology
What is the application of biological data using computational techniques called?
Bioinformatics
What does sequencing a person's genome help with?
Individualising treatment
What is an amine?
An organic compound containing a nitrogen atom attached to alkyl groups and hydrogens.
What is a six-carbon hydrocarbon called?
Hexane
What are stereoisomers?
General term for enantiomers and structural isomers.
What is a compound with a carbon double bonded to an oxygen?
Could be a ketone or an ester.
What type of structural formula shows bonds between carbons in a hydrocarbon?
Line formula
Describe the structure of the carboxyl functional group.
Contains a carbon atom double bonded to an oxygen and single bonded to a hydroxyl group (-COOH).
What are the three types of alcohols?
Primary, secondary, tertiary
What is a structural isomer?
Compounds with the same molecular formula but different arrangements of atoms.
How are geometrical isomers and enantiomers classified?
Both are classified as stereoisomers.
What are trends present within members of a homologous series?
Similar chemical properties and a gradual change in physical properties.
What does the term ‘alk’ refer to in organic chemistry?
Refers to saturated hydrocarbons (alkanes).
Identify the functional groups in organic compounds.
Look for hydroxyl, carbonyl, carboxyl, amine, etc.
What is the sixth alkane in the homologous series?
Hexane
What are the two geometrical isomers of 2,3-dichlorobut-2-ene?
Cis and trans isomers
What is the extended structural formula for cyclohexanone?
Draw the cyclic structure with a ketone functional group.
Calculate the gradient and y-intercept for a given data set.
Use the formula for a straight line, y = mx + b.
What is the IUPAC name for 3-methylbut-1-yne?
Identify based on longest carbon chain and functional groups.
What are the structural isomers of C6H14?
Hexane, 2-methylpentane, 3-methylpentane, cyclohexane
What is the ability of enantiomers to interact with biological systems?
Different enantiomers can have different effects in biological systems.
What are the structural isomers of C6H14?
What is the most volatile hydrohalide?
HCl
What is the order of volatility for hydrohalides?
Why is HF the least volatile hydrohalide?
Hydrogen bonding in HF increases intermolecular forces, reducing volatility.
What is the algebraic expression for alkanes?
CnH2n+2
What are the algebraic expressions for alkenes?
CnH2n
What are the algebraic expressions for alkynes?
CnH2n-2
What are the algebraic expressions for alcohols?
CnH2n+1OH
What are the algebraic expressions for carboxylic acids?
CnH2nO2
What errors are in the name 4-oxo-3,3-methylpentan-2-ol?
Incorrect functional group priority and numbering. Should be corrected to reflect proper IUPAC naming.
What is the name of the compound 3-methylbut-2-yne?
The name is correct but check for proper bonding and structure representation.
What is the name of the compound 2,3-dimethyl-4-ethylnonane?
Check for correct position of substituents and proper numbering.
What is the name of the compound butan-1-one?
Check if it should be named as butan-2-one based on structure.
What is the name of the compound 2-ethyl-2-methylhexane?
Check for correct placement of substituents and proper structure.
What is the name of the compound 2-oxobutane-1,3-diol?
Check for correct functional group placement and naming conventions.
What is the name of the compound 2-propyl-3-bromo-4-ethyl-5-fluoro-6-methyl-cyclohexan-1-ol?
Check for proper order of substituents and correct naming.
What is the hydrocarbon skeleton in organic molecules?
A framework of carbon atoms that can contain functional groups.
What are some functional groups found in organic molecules?
What is the significance of structural formulas in organic chemistry?
They show the arrangement of atoms and bonding in organic molecules.
What types of compounds can IUPAC rules be applied to?
What are structural isomers?
Compounds with the same molecular formula but different arrangements of atoms.
What are stereoisomers?
Compounds with the same structural formula but different arrangements of atoms in space.
What is geometrical isomerism?
A type of stereoisomerism in non-cyclic alkenes, involving cis and trans configurations.
What influences the physical properties of organic compounds?
Intermolecular forces: dispersion forces, dipole-dipole interactions, and hydrogen bonds.
What is the main chain in a hydrocarbon?
The longest chain of carbon atoms in a hydrocarbon molecule.
What does nomenclature refer to in organic chemistry?
The system for naming organic compounds based on their structure.
What is the role of carbon's valence electrons in bonding?
Carbon covalently bonds with other atoms to achieve a stable octet of electrons.
What are some examples of organic compounds?
What affects the volatility and solubility of organic compounds?
The type of functional groups present.
What is a prefix in organic nomenclature?
A group of letters added to the beginning of a word; the first part of an organic compound’s name.
What do the prefixes for 5–10 carbons correspond to?
They are the same as those used for naming polygons in mathematics.
What is the octet rule?
The tendency of carbon atoms to share electrons to achieve 8 electrons in the valence energy level.
What does the suffix ‘ane’ indicate?
The hydrocarbon contains only single covalent bonds; it is an alkane.
What is an alkene?
A class of organic compound that contains one or more double bonds between carbon atoms.
What is an alkyne?
A class of organic compound that contains one or more triple bonds between carbon atoms.
What defines a saturated hydrocarbon?
It only has single carbon–carbon bonds and contains a maximum number of hydrogen atoms.
What are locants used for?
To pinpoint the location of double and triple bonds in organic compounds.
How are locants numbered?
Each carbon atom is assigned a number, starting with 1 for the first carbon on the end of the main chain.
How is the location of a multiple bond indicated?
By the lower number of the two carbon atoms in the bond, included in the compound’s name with hyphens.
What is a locant in organic chemistry?
A number or letter indicating the position of a substituent or functional group within an organic compound.
Where must the locant be placed in a hydrocarbon name?
It must immediately precede the component of the molecule that it relates to.
What are hydrocarbon substituents?
Carbon (and hydrogen) atoms that branch off the main chain of a hydrocarbon.
How do you name a hydrocarbon with a substituent?
Number the carbons in the main chain and indicate the position of the substituent as a prefix ending with ‘yl’.
What is the name of the molecule with a triple bond and a one-carbon substituent on carbon 3?
3-methylpent-1-yne.
How are multiple substituents named in a molecule?
Name substituents in alphabetical order; use multipliers for more than one of the same type.
What is the lowest possible locant assignment rule?
Assign the suffix the lowest possible locant when numbering carbon atoms.
What is the name of the molecule with two methyl groups and one ethyl group in a ring?
1-ethyl-6,6-dimethylcyclohex-1-ene
How can benzene be represented?
With alternating double bonds or a circle to indicate delocalised electrons.
What are the components of a hydrocarbon name?
Prefix (indicates carbon chain length), suffix (indicates functional group), locant (position of functional group).
What is a functional group?
An atom or group of atoms in an organic compound that determines its reactivity.
What is the hydroxyl functional group?
An –OH group, consisting of an oxygen atom and a hydrogen atom joined by a single bond.
What is the carbonyl functional group?
An oxygen atom double bonded to a carbon atom in the main chain (–CO–).
What is the carboxyl functional group?
A hydroxyl group attached to the carbon of a carbonyl group (–COOH).
How do you name an alcohol?
Identify the main chain, omit the final 'e', and add 'ol' as a suffix, preceded by the locant.
What is a primary alcohol?
An alcohol where the carbon bonded to the hydroxyl group is only bonded to one other carbon.
What is a secondary alcohol?
An alcohol where the carbon bonded to the hydroxyl group is bonded to two other carbons.
What is the significance of IUPAC rules?
They provide a standardized way to name organic compounds, ensuring clarity and consistency in communication.
What is the structure of benzene?
Benzene can be drawn with alternating double bonds or as a circle indicating delocalized electrons.
What is a primary alcohol?
An alcohol in which the carbon bonded to the –OH group is bonded to one other carbon.
What is a secondary alcohol?
An alcohol in which the carbon bonded to the –OH group is bonded to two other carbons.
What is a tertiary alcohol?
An alcohol in which the carbon bonded to the –OH group is bonded to three other carbons.
What are aldehydes?
Organic compounds with a carbonyl group on the end of the main chain (carbon 1).
How do you name a ketone?
Identify the main chain, omit the final ‘e’, add ‘one’ as a suffix preceded by the locant.
How do you name a carboxylic acid?
Count carbons, omit final ‘e’, and add ‘oic acid’. Carboxyl carbon is carbon 1.
What are esters?
Organic compounds derived from a carboxylic acid and an alcohol, containing a carbonyl group attached to an oxygen.
How do you name an ester?
Name from the alcohol and carboxylic acid; include suffix ‘oate’ for the chain attached to carbonyl.
What is an ester?
A class of organic compound that contains a carbonyl attached to an oxygen, which is bonded to another carbon.
How do you name an ester?
Count carbons in the chain attached to carbonyl, name it and add 'oate'. Count carbons in chain attached to oxygen, name it and add 'yl'.
What is the name of the molecule with a carbonyl on a four-carbon chain and a methyl substituent?
Methyl butanoate
What is an amine?
A class of organic compound that contains the amino functional group and ends with 'amine'.
How are amines classified?
Amines are classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary based on the number of alkyl groups bonded to nitrogen.
What is the naming rule for amines?
Identify and name each alkyl group, place them in alphabetical order, and add the suffix 'amine'.
What is an amide?
A class of organic compound that contains amine and carbonyl functional groups adjacent to each other.
How do you name an amide?
Identify the main chain, number the carbonyl carbon as carbon 1, and add the suffix 'amide'.
What are the types of amines?
Primary, secondary, and tertiary based on the number of alkyl groups attached to nitrogen.
What are the types of amides?
Primary, secondary, and tertiary based on the number of alkyl groups attached to the carbonyl and amine.
What is the structure of N-Methylpropanamide?
What is the importance of order of priority in naming compounds?
Determines principal and subordinate functional groups
What are the types of structural formulas for organic compounds?
What do extended structural formulas show?
Arrangement and bonding of atoms in a molecule without ambiguity.
How are single, double, and triple bonds represented in extended structural formulas?
What is a condensed structural formula?
A formula that provides information about carbon arrangements but not bonding between atoms.
What do brackets in condensed structural formulas represent?
Repeating patterns or substituents that branch in the organic molecule.
What is a line structural formula?
A formula drawn as a zigzag line representing bonding and some atoms present.
How are carbon atoms represented in line structural formulas?
Carbon atoms are represented by the ends and corners of the diagonal lines.
What atoms are typically not written in line structural formulas?
Hydrogen atoms (except for hydroxyl and amine functional groups).
What is a structural formula?
A representation of an organic compound showing arrangement and bonding of atoms.
What is a study tip for counting carbon atoms in line structural formulas?
Place a dot on each 'end' and 'bend' of the line structural formulas.
What is the structural formula?
A representation showing the arrangement of atoms in a molecule and the bonds between them.
What are the steps to interpret a condensed structural formula?
What are the extended and condensed structural formulas of diethylamine?
Extended: - H2N-CH2-CH3 - CH2-CH3 Condensed: - C4H11N
What are the extended and condensed structural formulas of 3-methylbut-1-yne?
Extended: - H-C≡C-CH(CH3)-CH2-CH3 Condensed: - C5H8
What are the extended and condensed structural formulas of 4-oxo propyl hexanoate?
Extended: - CH3-CH2-CO-CH2-CH2-COO-CH2-CH3 Condensed: - C8H14O2
What are the extended and condensed structural formulas of N-methyloctanamide?
Extended: - CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CO-NH-CH3 Condensed: - C9H19NO
What is a structural isomer?
Compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural formulas.
What are the boiling and melting points of 2-methylpropane?
Boiling point: -12°C, Melting point: -159°C.
What are stereoisomers?
Compounds with the same molecular formula and structural formula but different arrangements of atoms in space.
What are geometrical isomers?
Stereoisomers with different arrangements of atoms around a rigid double bond.
What are the two forms of geometrical isomers?
Cis (same side) and Trans (opposite sides) of the double bond.
What is the example of cis and trans isomers in but-2-ene?
Cis: both methyl groups on the same side; Trans: methyl groups on opposite sides.
What are isomers?
Two or more organic compounds that have the same atoms but a different arrangement and bonding.
What are stereoisomers?
Two or more organic compounds that have the same atoms and bonding but a different spatial arrangement.
What are geometrical isomers?
Two organic compounds that have different arrangements of atoms around a rigid double bond.
What do geometrical isomers require around the double bond?
At least two substituents other than hydrogen.
What are enantiomers?
A type of stereoisomer with an asymmetrical carbon atom and four different substituents.
What is the arrangement of substituents in enantiomers?
They are mirror images of each other and non-superimposable.
What is the Thalidomide tragedy?
Thalidomide was a sedative linked to severe birth defects due to its enantiomers.
What was Thalidomide initially used for?
As a sedative for treating flu, stress, anxiety, and morning sickness.
Why was Thalidomide never approved in the US?
Due to concerns from the Food and Drug Administration.
What can happen even with a pure sample of the non-toxic enantiomer?
It can be converted into the toxic enantiomer
What are the structural isomers of C5H12?
What is the difference between 2-Fluorobutan-2-ol and 3-fluorobutan-2-ol?
They are positional isomers
What increases with each member of a homologous series?
Molecular mass increases by approximately 14 amu
How does the number of carbon atoms affect structural isomers in alkanes?
Increases the number of possible structural isomers
What are characteristic physical properties of organic compounds?
Melting point, boiling point, solubility
What effect does the increase in electrons have on melting and boiling points?
Increases melting and boiling points due to greater intermolecular attraction
What trend is observed in the melting and boiling points of alkanes?
Increase in carbon atoms generally leads to higher melting and boiling points
Why do hydrocarbons have the lowest melting and boiling points?
They contain only carbon and hydrogen atoms joined by non-polar bonds
How do branched alkanes compare to straight-chained alkanes in boiling points?
Branched alkanes tend to have lower boiling points
Why are hydrocarbons insoluble in water?
Due to their non-polar nature compared to water's polar nature
How do the boiling points of alcohols compare to hydrocarbons?
Alcohols have significantly higher boiling points than hydrocarbons
What happens to the volatility of alcohols as they increase in size?
Volatility decreases as size increases
How many hydroxyl groups do diols and triols have?
Diols have two and triols have three hydroxyl groups
How does the solubility of alcohols change with carbon atoms?
Solubility in water decreases with more than three carbons.
Why do aldehydes and ketones have lower boiling points than alcohols?
They lack a hydroxyl functional group.
What are the first three members of the ketones and aldehydes homologous series?
They are miscible in water.
What allows carboxylic acids to have higher boiling points than alcohols?
Both carbonyl and hydroxyl groups participate in hydrogen bonding.
What physical properties do esters share with aldehydes and ketones?
Solubility in non-polar organic solvents
Why do primary amines have higher boiling points than secondary amines?
They can form more hydrogen bonds
How does the solubility of amines in water compare to aldehydes and ketones?
Comparable solubility due to hydrogen bonding
What happens to amine solubility in water beyond the fourth member of the homologous series?
Drops off significantly
What gives amides their high melting and boiling points?
Hydrogen bonds and strong dipole-dipole interactions
How does the size of the alkyl group affect haloalkane volatility?
As size increases, volatility decreases
What is a homologous series?
A series of compounds with the same functional group and similar properties
What role do intermolecular forces play in organic compounds?
They determine physical properties like boiling and melting points
What is a homologous series?
A series of organic compounds with the same functional group and similar chemical properties, differing by a repeating unit (e.g., -CH2-).
What role do intermolecular forces play in organic compounds?
They determine physical properties like boiling/melting points, solubility, and viscosity.
What does the term volatile mean?
A substance that easily vaporizes at normal temperatures and pressures.
What is a non-polar solvent?
A solvent that does not have a significant charge distribution, allowing it to dissolve non-polar compounds.
Why do some organic compounds dissolve in non-polar solvents instead of water?
Because they are non-polar and do not interact well with water's polar molecules.
What does miscible mean?
Two liquids that can mix in any proportion without separating into two phases.
What is the predicted boiling point of pentane?
Based on trends in boiling points of alkanes, it is approximately 36 °C.
What is the significance of trendlines in boiling points of organic compounds?
They indicate how boiling points change with different functional groups and carbon chain lengths.
What are the properties of ethylene glycol?
It has a high boiling point, low freezing point, and acts as an antifreeze and solvent.
What is the significance of hydrophobicity in a homologous series?
It affects solubility and interactions with water, influencing the behavior of compounds in biological systems.
What is biotechnology?
The use and manipulation of biological processes to develop products like medicines, biofuels, and genetically modified organisms.
What is selective breeding?
Choosing specific plants or animals to reproduce based on desired traits, enhancing certain characteristics.
What is bioinformatics?
A subfield of biotechnology that analyzes biological data using computational techniques.
What is the Protein Data Bank?
A major database storing genetic sequences and protein structures available for public access.
What is the role of genomic sequences in diseases?
They link specific genes to diseases, aiding in understanding genetic disorders.
Which population was studied for a high incidence of breast cancer?
Ashkenazi Jewish population in Washington DC
What is artificial selection?
The control of breeding of plants and animals to produce characteristics favourable to humans.
What can gene alterations cause in proteins?
A protein to be shortened, changing its three-dimensional structure.
How can people with a family history of breast cancer be screened?
Using a simple blood test to sequence their genome.
What is pharmacogenomics?
A field that analyses a person’s genomic sequence for individualised treatment.
What is the traditional approach to medication prescription?
Trial and error to find suitable medications.
For which conditions is pharmacogenomics currently used?
HIV, colon cancer, lymphoblastic leukemia, breast cancer.
What does the nomenclature of hydrocarbons depend on?
What are the organic compounds containing oxygen atoms?
How are functional groups treated in haloalkanes?
The halogen is treated as a substituent, not the principal functional group.
What do members of a homologous series have in common?
Same functional group but vary in the size of the main chain.
What happens to melting and boiling points as the main chain increases in size?
Melting and boiling points increase.
What does biological data include?
What has enabled the study of functional group interactions within biological molecules?
The breadth of biological data available to the public.
What are some developments in biotechnology?
What is a functional group best described as?
A group of atoms that is the location of reactivity in an organic compound.
What does a condensed structural formula provide information about?
The bonding and atom arrangement.
What do the physical properties of organic compounds include?
What is an amine?
An organic compound containing a nitrogen atom attached to alkyl groups and hydrogens.
Describe the structure of the carboxyl functional group.
Contains a carbon atom double bonded to an oxygen and single bonded to a hydroxyl group (-COOH).
What is a structural isomer?
Compounds with the same molecular formula but different arrangements of atoms.
What are trends present within members of a homologous series?
Similar chemical properties and a gradual change in physical properties.
Identify the functional groups in organic compounds.
Look for hydroxyl, carbonyl, carboxyl, amine, etc.
What is the extended structural formula for cyclohexanone?
Draw the cyclic structure with a ketone functional group.
Calculate the gradient and y-intercept for a given data set.
Use the formula for a straight line, y = mx + b.
What is the IUPAC name for 3-methylbut-1-yne?
Identify based on longest carbon chain and functional groups.
What is the ability of enantiomers to interact with biological systems?
Different enantiomers can have different effects in biological systems.
What are the structural isomers of C6H14?
Why is HF the least volatile hydrohalide?
Hydrogen bonding in HF increases intermolecular forces, reducing volatility.
What errors are in the name 4-oxo-3,3-methylpentan-2-ol?
Incorrect functional group priority and numbering. Should be corrected to reflect proper IUPAC naming.
What is the name of the compound 3-methylbut-2-yne?
The name is correct but check for proper bonding and structure representation.
What is the name of the compound 2,3-dimethyl-4-ethylnonane?
Check for correct position of substituents and proper numbering.
What is the name of the compound butan-1-one?
Check if it should be named as butan-2-one based on structure.
What is the name of the compound 2-ethyl-2-methylhexane?
Check for correct placement of substituents and proper structure.
What is the name of the compound 2-oxobutane-1,3-diol?
Check for correct functional group placement and naming conventions.
What is the name of the compound 2-propyl-3-bromo-4-ethyl-5-fluoro-6-methyl-cyclohexan-1-ol?
Check for proper order of substituents and correct naming.
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