What general abilities does the text say 'intellectual ability' encompasses?
Which animals do researchers and lay people generally agree are among the most intelligent?
What evolutionary source of primate intelligence is suggested in the text?
Name four cognitive abilities primates developed due to complex social environments, as listed in the text.
How does the text define 'theory of mind'?
What example does the introduction use to illustrate people perceived as 'smart'?
What two possible sources of intelligence are posed as questions in the introduction?
What does the module promise the reader will be able to do by its end regarding intelligence?
Who proposed that intelligence is a single 'general factor' known as 'g'?
What observation led Spearman to propose the 'g' factor?
What early psychological measurement did Francis Galton perform for three pence?
What hypothesis did Galton believe about intelligence?
What method did Galton popularize to study heritability of psychological traits?
Who is best known for formally pioneering measurement of intellectual ability with tests for children?
What unique observation did Binet make about some chess players?
What was the basis for items on the Binet-Simon children's test?
How was the Binet-Simon 'IQ' score originally calculated?
How is the term 'IQ' used in modern contexts according to the text?
What test did Lewis Terman adapt to create the Stanford-Binet?
The Binet-Simon test
What major advantage did Terman's Stanford-Binet test offer?
It was standardized using a large sample of children
How did Terman represent intelligence scores after standardizing the test?
He plotted scores in a normal distribution (a 'bell curve')
What criticism did David Wechsler have about the Stanford-Binet?
It relied heavily on verbal ability and used a single score to capture all intelligence
What was Wechsler's approach to measuring intelligence?
He created a test that tapped a wide range of specific intellectual abilities
Name three abilities assessed by the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS).
What conception of intelligence does Wechsler's test depart from?
Spearman's concept of general intelligence (single 'g')
What is the Flynn Effect?
The gain where newer groups outperform original norming samples on older IQ tests
What is the IQ test average score that allows detection of the Flynn Effect?
An average score of 100
List three hypotheses proposed to explain the Flynn Effect.
What conclusion do researchers currently have about causes of the Flynn Effect?
There is no perfect agreement among researchers about its causes
What distinction does the passage make between 'street smarts' and 'book smarts'?
How did Carroll (1993) organize intelligence in his model?
What is the meaning of stratum III in Carroll's hierarchy?
Give examples of stratum II and stratum I abilities in Carroll's model from the text.
How do Horn and Cattell (1966) distinguish types of intelligence?
What is fluid intelligence as described in the passage?
How is crystallized intelligence defined in the passage?
According to the passage, how do younger and older people tend to differ in problem solving?
What is the central idea of Howard Gardner's 'multiple intelligences' theory in the passage?
List the eight intelligences identified by Gardner as given in the text.
What does Gardner's theory of intelligence suggest about learning?
Gardner's theory suggests that people each learn in unique ways.
How has Gardner's theory influenced education worldwide?
There are many Gardner-influenced schools in the world.
How does emotional intelligence differ from traditional models of intelligence?
Emotional intelligence emphasizes the experience and expression of emotion rather than cognition (thinking).
According to some researchers, what skills comprise emotional intelligence?
Skills to accurately understand others' emotions, identify and label one's own emotions, and use emotions (Mayer & Salovey, 1997).
What alternative view do other researchers have about emotional intelligence?
They view it as a mixture of abilities (e.g., stress management) and personality (predisposition for certain moods) (Bar-On, 2006).
What workplace outcome is linked to emotional intelligence according to studies?
Emotional intelligence is linked to job performance (Lopes et al., 2006).
What did Schmidt and Hunter (1998) report about general intelligence and job types?
General intelligence is moderately correlated with all job types, especially managerial and complex, technical jobs.
What did Schmidt and Hunter find intelligence predicts in workplace training?
Intelligence is the single best predictor of doing well in job training programs and of learning on the job.
According to Carol Dweck, what mindset leads children to underperform?
Children who believe abilities and intelligence are fixed traits tend to underperform (Dweck, 1986).
According to Carol Dweck, which mindset helps children handle failure and perform better?
Believing intelligence is changeable and evolving (a growth mindset) helps children handle failure and perform better.
What caution is given about interpreting mindset research regarding intelligence potential?
There is a temptation to think humans have unlimited potential and that becoming smarter is only positive thinking, but evidence shows genetics is an important factor.
What does genetic research in adults suggest about intelligence inheritance?
Studies have yielded that intelligence is largely, but not totally, inherited (Bouchard, 2004).
According to Ceci, Williams & Barnett (2009), what percentage of engineering faculty were women in 1976?
What range describes women's representation in math-intensive faculty at the 50 top universities 'even today'?
List one possible explanation mentioned for women's under-representation in certain fields.
List another possible explanation mentioned for women's under-representation in certain fields.
What childcare-related explanation is given for women's different professional decisions?
What do Ceci and colleagues (2009) argue about biological and genetic differences accounting for sex differences in intellectual ability?
According to the text, what do Ceci and colleagues (2009) believe better explains sex differences in math-related abilities?
What does much research suggest about overall differences between the sexes in general intelligence?
Which specific abilities did Halpern (1997) report women, on average, outperform men?
Which specific abilities did Halpern (1997) report men, on average, outperform women?
What is 'stereotype threat' as described in the text?
Stereotype threat is the idea that mental access to a particular stereotype can have a real-world impact on a member of the stereotyped group.
What effect did informing women that 'women tend to fare poorly on math exams' have in Spencer, Steele, & Quinn (1999)?
Women informed of the stereotype performed worse on a math test relative to a control group who did not hear the stereotype.
What intervention reduced stereotype threat effects for women in Martens et al. (2006)?
Having women write about personal qualities they valued (a self-affirmation) before a math test largely erased the stereotype threat effect.
Did the self-affirmation intervention in Martens et al. (2006) have the same effect for men?
No; similar affirmations had little effect for men.
What do researchers say about the current state of evidence on stereotype threat?
Research on stereotype threat has yielded mixed results and we are currently uncertain about exactly how and when this effect might occur.
What important question do controversies about sex differences in intelligence measures raise?
They raise the question of whether there might be a problem with intelligence measures, specifically potential bias against certain groups.
What is the author's conclusion about National Spelling Bee competitors' intelligence?
They seem to have high verbal intelligence but we cannot determine other types (e.g., emotional or bodily-kinesthetic) from their spelling performance.
According to the text, what possible factors might help explain spelling bee competitors' abilities?
They may benefit from a genetic boost in intelligence, a supportive social environment, or both.
What overall statement does the text make about the nature of intelligence?
Intelligence is a complicated issue, and psychologists continue to research it, yielding new insights.
What does the vocabulary term g stand for in the text?
g stands for the 'general factor' and is often used as synonymous with intelligence.
How does the text define intelligence?
Intelligence is an individual's cognitive capability, including the ability to acquire, process, recall, and apply information.
What is an IQ according to the text?
IQ is 'intelligence quotient', a score from a widely used measure meant to rank a person's intellectual ability against others.
What is a norm in the context of assessments?
A norm is the range of scores determined from a representative sample; used to place an individual's score relative to the population.
What does it mean to standardize an assessment in the text?
Standardize means giving assessments in the exact same manner to all people; standardized scores reference normative scores for a population.
How is stereotype threat described in the text?
Stereotype threat is when people worry they will conform to a stereotype or that their performance does conform, especially when the stereotype is made conscious.
Which three classes of determinants does the text say are needed for effective performance and valued accomplishments?
Intelligence, interests, and mastery are needed for effective performance and valued accomplishments.
What analogy from Plato is used to describe intellect, affect, and will?
Plato's triarchic view depicts intellect as a charioteer and affect (interests) and will (to master) as the horses drawing the chariot.
What name does the text give to the combined cognitive, affective, and conative factors?
These combined factors are referred to as 'The Trilogy of Mind' (Hilgard, 1980).
According to the text, what happens if there is a deficit in one of the three classes (intelligence, interests, mastery)?
A deficit in any one can markedly hobble the effectiveness of the others in meeting standards for typical and extraordinary performance.
What term does the text use for causal models that neglect affection and conation?
Which theory is adapted in Figure 1 as a framework for talent development?
What two personal-attribute models are assembled in the framework for talent development?
In the framework, correspondence between abilities and ability requirements is called what?
In the framework, correspondence between interests and reward structures is called what?
According to the framework, what predicts tenure or a longstanding relationship between individual and environment?
What two lower-order dimensions underlie the RIASEC hexagon as noted in the text?
What does the dotted line in Figure 1 emphasize about assessment?
What do the letters and numbers in the cognitive ability arrangement denote in Figure 1?
What does the talent development model place equal emphasis on?
What common feature unites educational, counseling, and industrial/organizational psychology in this framework?
They study implementing interventions or opportunities, based on individual differences, to maximize positive psychological growth across the life span.
What approach is recommended beyond asking 'do you like it' and 'can you do it' for personal or institutional development decisions?
Consider what individuals like the most and can do the best to identify 'optimal promise' for development.
How are cognitive abilities organized according to a consensus over recent decades?
Cognitive abilities are organized hierarchically.
What graphical model represents the hierarchy of cognitive abilities described in the text?
A radex (Guttman, 1954) represents the hierarchical organization.
In the radex model, what does distance from the center represent?
Distance from the center scales test complexity (center = higher complexity, outward = lower complexity).
In the radex, how is test content represented around the circular bands?
Test content varies around the bands from spatial/mechanical to verbal/linguistic to quantitative/numerical while complexity remains constant along a band.
What drives covariation among cognitive ability assessments in the radex framework?
Assessments covary based on shared content or complexity; more shared content/complexity leads to higher covariance and closer positions in the radex.
What will be ultimately linked to cognitive abilities and interests according to the text?
They will be linked to conative determinants that mobilize and partly account for how capabilities and motives are expressed.
What does the general factor 'g' represent in intelligence research?
General mental ability representing the complexity/sophistication of a person's intellectual repertoire.
According to the text, how does test complexity relate to measuring g?
The more complex a test is, regardless of content, the better a measure of g it is.
Which three specific abilities are identified as chief modalities of thought?
Mathematical, spatial, and verbal reasoning.
Why are different specific ability tests positively correlated according to the passage?
Because they all index an underlying general property of intellectual thought (g).
What range of correlation does g have with educational achievement assessments?
g covaries with educational achievement assessments in the .70–.80 range.
How does g correlate with work performance and job complexity?
Measures of g covary .20–.60 with work performance as a function of job complexity.
What correlations with g are reported for income, criminal behavior, and achieved SES?
g correlates about .30–.40 with income, –.20 with criminal behavior, and .50–.70 with achieved SES.
What correlation is mentioned for assortative mating on g?
Assortative mating correlations on g are around .50.
How does the passage quote Piaget regarding intelligence?
Piaget: 'Intelligence is what you use when you don't know what to do.'
What do measures of specific abilities index about individuals?
They index individual differences in different modalities of thought: reasoning with numbers, words, and figures or shapes.
What claim does the passage make about an ability threshold?
There does not appear to be an ability threshold; more ability continues to matter.
How broadly do assessments of g covary compared to other measures of individuality?
Assessments of g covary more broadly and deeper than any other measure of human individuality.
According to the text, does greater ability affect learning, working, and creating among the top 1%?
Yes; the text states 'more ability does make a difference in learning, working, and creating, even among the top 1% of ability.'
What problem limited past demonstrations of individual differences within high-ability groups?
Intellectual assessments and criterion measures lacked sufficient scope, causing ceiling effects and no variation among the able.
What corrected the past difficulty in demonstrating variation among the profoundly talented?
Modern methods that corrected for limited scope in assessments and criterion measures (as cited: Kell, Lubinski, & Benbow, 2013a; Lubinski, 2009; Park, Lubinski, & Benbow, 2007, 2008).
Does the text claim that measures of g capture all of intellectual functioning?
No; the text states 'there is much more to intellectual functioning than measures of g or general ability.'
What did Frey and Detterman (2004) show about the SAT composite in high ability samples?
They showed the SAT composite is an excellent measure of general intelligence for high ability samples.
At what age were intellectually precocious youth assessed on the SAT composite in the described study?
They were assessed at age 13.
What were the approximate cutting scores at age 13 for the top 1 in 200 before the SAT re-centering?
SAT-M ≥ 500 and SAT-V ≥ 430.
What were the approximate cutting scores at age 13 for the top 1 in 10,000 before the SAT re-centering?
SAT-M ≥ 700 and SAT-V ≥ 630.
What did Figure 3 data (Wai et al., 2009) use to reveal how abilities operate over development?
Data from over 400,000 high school students assessed between grades 9–12 and tracked for 11 years.
Which ability profile characterized individuals who pursued advanced degrees in STEM according to the text?
High general intelligence with an orientation dominated by high mathematical and spatial abilities relative to verbal ability.
How do students who secure STEM degrees compare in overall capability to those in non-STEM domains?
Within educational domains, how do more advanced degrees relate to abilities?
For the three STEM educational groupings, which ability is greater: spatial or verbal?
For most non-STEM educational domains (e.g., education, biology), which ability is greater: spatial or verbal?
Did adolescents who later earned advanced STEM credentials show a different ability pattern in youth?
What does level of general ability predict according to the text?
What does ability pattern predict according to the text?
What does the RIASEC hexagonal model describe in vocational interests?
A hexagonal structure of six general themes of vocational interests: Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, Conventional.
Give the main features of the 'Realistic (R)' theme in Holland's model.
Give the main features of the 'Investigative (I)' theme in Holland's model.
Give the main features of the 'Artistic (A)' theme in Holland's model.
Give the main features of the 'Social (S)' theme in Holland's model.
Give the main features of the 'Enterprising (E)' theme in Holland's model.
Give the main features of the 'Conventional (C)' theme in Holland's model.
How do the six RIASEC themes covary according to the text?
They covary inversely with the distance between them around the hexagon: closer themes correlate more than distant ones.
What comparable framework did Guilford et al. (1954) identify?
A similar framework labeled Mechanical, Scientific, Aesthetic Expression, Social Welfare, Business, and Clerical based on military data.
What higher-order themes exist above the RIASEC level mentioned in the text?
Super-ordinal themes such as people versus things and data versus ideas.
What relationship exists between interest dimensions and abilities at RIASEC or superordinate levels?
Interest dimensions covary in different ways with mathematical, spatial, and verbal abilities.
What happens when selection is extremely restricted to a specific ability?
Distinctive interest profiles emerge across abilities and reflect different 'types'.
What typical correlation range between abilities and interests does the text report?
Correlations are 'only' in the .20-.30 range.
According to the text, why is psychological information on motivational differences needed?
To understand attractions and aversions, different ways to create a meaningful life, and how differential development unfolds.
What observation does the text make about people with the same intellectual equipment?
They vary widely in their motivational proclivities.
What does the text say causes extreme, different kinds of intelligence?
They stem from endpoint extremes within a multivariate space of systematic sources of individual differences, not from different qualities.
According to the passage, what do conative determinants relate to?
Individual differences in energy or psychological tempo rather than content of skills or learning speed.
Which personal attributes often 'pull' with endpoint extremes of intelligence?
Constellations of nonintellectual personal attributes.
How do skilled educational-vocational counselors use abilities and interests?
They combine them to distill learning and work environments where individuals are likely to thrive in competence and experience fulfillment.
What examples of labels for conative attributes are mentioned from historical theorists?
What modern casual labels does the passage give for conative resources?
What do studies of expertise and world-class accomplishment commonly show about top performers?
They have indefatigable capacities for study and work, indicating high pace and endurance.
Which researchers or theorists are said to agree that exceptional performers are deeply committed?
Howard Gardner, Dean Simonton, Arthur Jensen, Anders Ericsson, and Harriet Zuckerman.
According to Simonton and E. O. Wilson quoted in the passage, what must people do to 'make it big'?
Organize their whole lives around a single enterprise, start early, and labor with monomaniacal devotion.
What consensus is noted in the field of talent development?
The greatest consensus is found on the topic of conation rather than cognition or affect.
According to the text, what large individual differences were observed among exceptionally talented individuals?
What did the study of STEM graduate students show about men and women in their mid-twenties?
How did STEM graduate students' time allocation and life priorities change over the life span?
What anecdotal formula did Wilson (1998) give for time needed to succeed in an academic biology career?
What consequence does the text suggest from two faculty working different weekly hours (45 vs 65) over five years?
What three major findings about human individuality does the conclusion list?
What historical idea does the conclusion reference as a starting point for the study of individual differences?
What does combining psychological diversity with attention to opportunities produce, according to the text?
Which two extraordinary populations were compared in Figure 4 described in the text?
What did subjects report about their 'ideal job' in the longitudinal studies?
What is g or general mental ability as defined in the text?
How does the text define satisfaction in an environmental context?
How is satisfactoriness defined in the text?
What are specific abilities according to the passage?
What are under-determined or misspecified causal models as described in the text?
What everyday decision examples does the introduction give to illustrate daily choices?
What does the bounded rationality framework claim about human decision making?
What limitations are listed that constrain rational decision making under bounded rationality?
According to Bazerman and Moore (2013), what is the first step in making a rational decision about choosing a graduate program?
List the six steps Bazerman and Moore (2013) recommend for making a rational decision.
What does Simon's concept of bounded rationality indicate about human judgment?
What did Tversky and Kahneman (1974) contribute to understanding judgment and decision making?
How are the biases described by Tversky and Kahneman created according to the text?
Why is knowledge of decision-making biases useful, as stated in the text?
What instruction are participants given for estimating the 10 uncertain quantities in Problem 1?
Write a best estimate for each quantity and provide a lower and upper bound such that you are 98% confident the range contains the true value.
List two examples of items participants must estimate in Problem 1.
What confidence level must the bounds reflect in Problem 1?
98% confidence that the range surrounds the actual quantity.
What is the main question posed in Problem 2 about executive fraud?
Whether incidence of significant executive-level management fraud is more than 10 in 1,000 Big Four clients.
What response options are given for the executive fraud question in Problem 2?
What additional quantitative response does Problem 2 ask from participants?
Estimate the number of Big Four clients per 1,000 that have significant executive-level management fraud.
In Problem 3, how many people is the avian disease expected to kill if no program is adopted?
600 people
According to Problem 3, what is the outcome if Program A is adopted?
200 people will be saved.
In Program B, what are the probabilities and outcomes described for saving people?
What outcome does Program A offer in the described problem?
What bias is illustrated by people being overly certain that their 98% confidence ranges include the true value?
Overconfidence
According to the overconfidence example, how many of ten 98% ranges do most readers actually include the true answers?
Most readers include between three (30%) and seven (70%) of the correct answers
In the anchoring example, how did different anchors (10 vs 200) affect people's estimates of executive-level management fraud?
Estimates from those anchored at 10 (out of 1,000) were about half the size of estimates from those anchored at 200
What general effect does an initial anchor have on judgments, according to the text?
An initial anchor is likely to influence judgments, with people insufficiently adjusting away from it
In the disease problem framing, what are the outcomes of Program C?
In the disease problem framing, what are the outcomes of Program D?
What pattern of choices do most individuals show between Programs A/C and B/D in Tversky & Kahneman's problem?
Most choose Program A in the saving frame and Program D in the loss frame
How does framing affect risk preference according to the passage?
People are risk averse for gains (save lives) and risk seeking for losses (avoid deaths)
What is an implied reference point when the problem is framed in terms of saving lives?
The worst outcome of 600 deaths
What is an implied reference point when the problem is framed in terms of losses?
The best outcome of no deaths due to the avian disease
List three cognitive biases or errors mentioned that affect human judgment.
What is hindsight bias as described in the passage?
Claiming a priori knowledge that didn't exist
What two bounded aspects of decision making did Thaler (2000) propose?
What does bounded willpower explain in everyday behavior?
Giving greater weight to present concerns than future concerns (e.g., failing to save for retirement)
How does Thaler describe bounded self-interest?
Caring about outcomes of others, sometimes valuing their outcomes positively (e.g., fairness)
What does the concept of 'bounded ethicality' refer to?
The notion that our ethics are limited in ways we are not even aware of ourselves.
What is 'bounded awareness' as developed by Chugh and Bazerman (2007)?
The broad array of focusing failures that cause us to fail to notice obvious and important information available to us.
How have judgment and decision-making research impacted other fields?
They transformed behavioral economics, behavioral finance, and behavioral marketing by applying and extending judgment and decision-making research.
What did early research (Fischhoff, 1982) show about awareness of biases?
Awareness of biases does little to reduce those biases.
What distinction do Stanovich and West (2000) make in decision making?
They distinguish between System 1 (intuitive) and System 2 (deliberative) decision making.
List key characteristics of System 1 processing.
List key characteristics of System 2 processing.
When is a complete System 2 process recommended?
Preferably for our most important decisions.
What tendency increases reliance on System 1 thinking?
Being busier, more rushed, or having more on one's mind.
Why might executives often rely on System 1 thinking?
Because the frantic pace of professional life makes them more likely to rely on System 1 thinking.
What is a key path to reducing biases and improving decisions?
Transitioning from trusting intuitive System 1 thinking toward engaging more deliberative System 2 thought.
What decision-making problem did Michael Lewis (2003) identify in baseball executives?
Baseball executives overgeneralize from personal experiences, overweight recent performance, and overvalue what they see, producing biased decisions.
How did Billy Beane improve the Oakland Athletics' outcomes according to Lewis (2003)?
By substituting valid predictors of future performance (System 2 thinking) for biased intuition, improving team performance despite a limited payroll.
What is the core idea of Thaler and Sunstein's 'Nudge' (2008)?
Decision architects can change environments to account for human bias and trigger better decisions without debiasing individuals directly.
What effect did automatic enrollment (opt-out default) have on 401(k) participation in Beshears et al. (2008)?
Automatic enrollment with an opt-out option significantly increases net enrollment in employer 401(k) programs.
What human tendency do default changes counteract, as shown in the 401(k) example?
The tendency to stick with the status quo (inaction) and delay proactive enrollment decisions.
What did Johnson and Goldstein's (2003) organ donation study compare?
Opt-in policies (require proactive consent) versus opt-out policies (default to donation) across European countries.
What were the consent rate ranges for opt-in versus opt-out organ donation policies reported by Johnson and Goldstein (2003)?
Opt-in consent rates ranged from 4.25% to 44%; opt-out consent rates ranged from 85.9% to 99.98%.
What conclusion did the organ donation example illustrate about decision architecture?
Changing defaults can dramatically increase donation rates without changing the options available to citizens.
According to the text, why do intuitive defaults sometimes lead to harmful outcomes?
Intuitive defaults that ignore human biases can produce choices that cause large harms, such as unnecessary deaths from low organ consent rates.
What research topic does Dr. Anita Tusche study at Queen's University?
Dr. Anita Tusche studies human decision making.
According to the text, is human decision making always rational?
No; the text states rationality is desirable but not always present when humans make judgments or decisions.
What is the role of psychological science in decision making as described in the video?
To understand what guides judgments and decision making and to use that knowledge to promote better decision strategies.
What did Simon, Kahneman, and Tversky's work highlight about human decision making?
They highlighted the surprising and predictable deficiencies of the human mind when making decisions.
What is 'anchoring' as defined in the vocabulary?
The bias to be affected by an initial anchor, even if arbitrary, and to insufficiently adjust judgments away from it.
How are 'biases' defined in the text?
Systematic and predictable mistakes that influence the judgment of even very talented human beings.
What does 'bounded awareness' refer to?
The systematic ways in which we fail to notice obvious and important information available to us.
Define 'bounded ethicality' from the vocabulary list.
The systematic ways in which our ethics are limited in ways we are not even aware of ourselves.
What is 'bounded rationality' according to the text?
A model suggesting humans try to make rational decisions but are bounded due to cognitive limitations.
What does 'bounded self-interest' describe?
The systematic and predictable ways in which we care about the outcomes of others.
What is 'bounded willpower'?
The tendency to place greater weight on present concerns rather than future concerns.
How is 'framing' defined in the vocabulary?
The bias to be systematically affected by the way information is presented while objective information is constant.
What are 'heuristics' as given in the text?
Cognitive strategies that simplify decision making by using mental short-cuts.
What does 'overconfident' mean in this vocabulary?
The bias to have greater confidence in your judgment than is warranted based on a rational assessment.
How is 'System 1' characterized?
Our intuitive decision-making system: typically fast, automatic, effortless, implicit, and emotional.
What is 'System 2' in decision-making?
System 2 is our more deliberative decision-making system that is slower, conscious, effortful, explicit, and logical.
What general abilities does the text say 'intellectual ability' encompasses?
Which animals do researchers and lay people generally agree are among the most intelligent?
What evolutionary source of primate intelligence is suggested in the text?
Name four cognitive abilities primates developed due to complex social environments, as listed in the text.
How does the text define 'theory of mind'?
What example does the introduction use to illustrate people perceived as 'smart'?
What two possible sources of intelligence are posed as questions in the introduction?
What does the module promise the reader will be able to do by its end regarding intelligence?
What observation led Spearman to propose the 'g' factor?
What early psychological measurement did Francis Galton perform for three pence?
What hypothesis did Galton believe about intelligence?
What method did Galton popularize to study heritability of psychological traits?
Who is best known for formally pioneering measurement of intellectual ability with tests for children?
What unique observation did Binet make about some chess players?
What was the basis for items on the Binet-Simon children's test?
How was the Binet-Simon 'IQ' score originally calculated?
How is the term 'IQ' used in modern contexts according to the text?
What major advantage did Terman's Stanford-Binet test offer?
It was standardized using a large sample of children
How did Terman represent intelligence scores after standardizing the test?
He plotted scores in a normal distribution (a 'bell curve')
What criticism did David Wechsler have about the Stanford-Binet?
It relied heavily on verbal ability and used a single score to capture all intelligence
What was Wechsler's approach to measuring intelligence?
He created a test that tapped a wide range of specific intellectual abilities
Name three abilities assessed by the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS).
What conception of intelligence does Wechsler's test depart from?
Spearman's concept of general intelligence (single 'g')
What is the Flynn Effect?
The gain where newer groups outperform original norming samples on older IQ tests
What is the IQ test average score that allows detection of the Flynn Effect?
An average score of 100
List three hypotheses proposed to explain the Flynn Effect.
What conclusion do researchers currently have about causes of the Flynn Effect?
There is no perfect agreement among researchers about its causes
What distinction does the passage make between 'street smarts' and 'book smarts'?
How did Carroll (1993) organize intelligence in his model?
What is the meaning of stratum III in Carroll's hierarchy?
Give examples of stratum II and stratum I abilities in Carroll's model from the text.
How do Horn and Cattell (1966) distinguish types of intelligence?
What is fluid intelligence as described in the passage?
How is crystallized intelligence defined in the passage?
According to the passage, how do younger and older people tend to differ in problem solving?
What is the central idea of Howard Gardner's 'multiple intelligences' theory in the passage?
List the eight intelligences identified by Gardner as given in the text.
What does Gardner's theory of intelligence suggest about learning?
Gardner's theory suggests that people each learn in unique ways.
How has Gardner's theory influenced education worldwide?
There are many Gardner-influenced schools in the world.
How does emotional intelligence differ from traditional models of intelligence?
Emotional intelligence emphasizes the experience and expression of emotion rather than cognition (thinking).
According to some researchers, what skills comprise emotional intelligence?
Skills to accurately understand others' emotions, identify and label one's own emotions, and use emotions (Mayer & Salovey, 1997).
What alternative view do other researchers have about emotional intelligence?
They view it as a mixture of abilities (e.g., stress management) and personality (predisposition for certain moods) (Bar-On, 2006).
What workplace outcome is linked to emotional intelligence according to studies?
Emotional intelligence is linked to job performance (Lopes et al., 2006).
What did Schmidt and Hunter (1998) report about general intelligence and job types?
General intelligence is moderately correlated with all job types, especially managerial and complex, technical jobs.
What did Schmidt and Hunter find intelligence predicts in workplace training?
Intelligence is the single best predictor of doing well in job training programs and of learning on the job.
According to Carol Dweck, what mindset leads children to underperform?
Children who believe abilities and intelligence are fixed traits tend to underperform (Dweck, 1986).
According to Carol Dweck, which mindset helps children handle failure and perform better?
Believing intelligence is changeable and evolving (a growth mindset) helps children handle failure and perform better.
What caution is given about interpreting mindset research regarding intelligence potential?
There is a temptation to think humans have unlimited potential and that becoming smarter is only positive thinking, but evidence shows genetics is an important factor.
What does genetic research in adults suggest about intelligence inheritance?
Studies have yielded that intelligence is largely, but not totally, inherited (Bouchard, 2004).
According to Ceci, Williams & Barnett (2009), what percentage of engineering faculty were women in 1976?
What range describes women's representation in math-intensive faculty at the 50 top universities 'even today'?
List one possible explanation mentioned for women's under-representation in certain fields.
List another possible explanation mentioned for women's under-representation in certain fields.
What childcare-related explanation is given for women's different professional decisions?
What do Ceci and colleagues (2009) argue about biological and genetic differences accounting for sex differences in intellectual ability?
According to the text, what do Ceci and colleagues (2009) believe better explains sex differences in math-related abilities?
What does much research suggest about overall differences between the sexes in general intelligence?
Which specific abilities did Halpern (1997) report women, on average, outperform men?
Which specific abilities did Halpern (1997) report men, on average, outperform women?
What is 'stereotype threat' as described in the text?
Stereotype threat is the idea that mental access to a particular stereotype can have a real-world impact on a member of the stereotyped group.
What effect did informing women that 'women tend to fare poorly on math exams' have in Spencer, Steele, & Quinn (1999)?
Women informed of the stereotype performed worse on a math test relative to a control group who did not hear the stereotype.
What intervention reduced stereotype threat effects for women in Martens et al. (2006)?
Having women write about personal qualities they valued (a self-affirmation) before a math test largely erased the stereotype threat effect.
Did the self-affirmation intervention in Martens et al. (2006) have the same effect for men?
No; similar affirmations had little effect for men.
What do researchers say about the current state of evidence on stereotype threat?
Research on stereotype threat has yielded mixed results and we are currently uncertain about exactly how and when this effect might occur.
What important question do controversies about sex differences in intelligence measures raise?
They raise the question of whether there might be a problem with intelligence measures, specifically potential bias against certain groups.
What is the author's conclusion about National Spelling Bee competitors' intelligence?
They seem to have high verbal intelligence but we cannot determine other types (e.g., emotional or bodily-kinesthetic) from their spelling performance.
According to the text, what possible factors might help explain spelling bee competitors' abilities?
They may benefit from a genetic boost in intelligence, a supportive social environment, or both.
What overall statement does the text make about the nature of intelligence?
Intelligence is a complicated issue, and psychologists continue to research it, yielding new insights.
What does the vocabulary term g stand for in the text?
g stands for the 'general factor' and is often used as synonymous with intelligence.
How does the text define intelligence?
Intelligence is an individual's cognitive capability, including the ability to acquire, process, recall, and apply information.
What is an IQ according to the text?
IQ is 'intelligence quotient', a score from a widely used measure meant to rank a person's intellectual ability against others.
What is a norm in the context of assessments?
A norm is the range of scores determined from a representative sample; used to place an individual's score relative to the population.
What does it mean to standardize an assessment in the text?
Standardize means giving assessments in the exact same manner to all people; standardized scores reference normative scores for a population.
How is stereotype threat described in the text?
Stereotype threat is when people worry they will conform to a stereotype or that their performance does conform, especially when the stereotype is made conscious.
Which three classes of determinants does the text say are needed for effective performance and valued accomplishments?
Intelligence, interests, and mastery are needed for effective performance and valued accomplishments.
What analogy from Plato is used to describe intellect, affect, and will?
Plato's triarchic view depicts intellect as a charioteer and affect (interests) and will (to master) as the horses drawing the chariot.
What name does the text give to the combined cognitive, affective, and conative factors?
These combined factors are referred to as 'The Trilogy of Mind' (Hilgard, 1980).
According to the text, what happens if there is a deficit in one of the three classes (intelligence, interests, mastery)?
A deficit in any one can markedly hobble the effectiveness of the others in meeting standards for typical and extraordinary performance.
What term does the text use for causal models that neglect affection and conation?
Which theory is adapted in Figure 1 as a framework for talent development?
What two personal-attribute models are assembled in the framework for talent development?
In the framework, correspondence between abilities and ability requirements is called what?
In the framework, correspondence between interests and reward structures is called what?
According to the framework, what predicts tenure or a longstanding relationship between individual and environment?
What two lower-order dimensions underlie the RIASEC hexagon as noted in the text?
What does the dotted line in Figure 1 emphasize about assessment?
What do the letters and numbers in the cognitive ability arrangement denote in Figure 1?
What does the talent development model place equal emphasis on?
What common feature unites educational, counseling, and industrial/organizational psychology in this framework?
They study implementing interventions or opportunities, based on individual differences, to maximize positive psychological growth across the life span.
What approach is recommended beyond asking 'do you like it' and 'can you do it' for personal or institutional development decisions?
Consider what individuals like the most and can do the best to identify 'optimal promise' for development.
How are cognitive abilities organized according to a consensus over recent decades?
Cognitive abilities are organized hierarchically.
What graphical model represents the hierarchy of cognitive abilities described in the text?
A radex (Guttman, 1954) represents the hierarchical organization.
In the radex model, what does distance from the center represent?
Distance from the center scales test complexity (center = higher complexity, outward = lower complexity).
In the radex, how is test content represented around the circular bands?
Test content varies around the bands from spatial/mechanical to verbal/linguistic to quantitative/numerical while complexity remains constant along a band.
What drives covariation among cognitive ability assessments in the radex framework?
Assessments covary based on shared content or complexity; more shared content/complexity leads to higher covariance and closer positions in the radex.
What will be ultimately linked to cognitive abilities and interests according to the text?
They will be linked to conative determinants that mobilize and partly account for how capabilities and motives are expressed.
What does the general factor 'g' represent in intelligence research?
General mental ability representing the complexity/sophistication of a person's intellectual repertoire.
According to the text, how does test complexity relate to measuring g?
The more complex a test is, regardless of content, the better a measure of g it is.
Which three specific abilities are identified as chief modalities of thought?
Mathematical, spatial, and verbal reasoning.
Why are different specific ability tests positively correlated according to the passage?
Because they all index an underlying general property of intellectual thought (g).
What range of correlation does g have with educational achievement assessments?
g covaries with educational achievement assessments in the .70–.80 range.
How does g correlate with work performance and job complexity?
Measures of g covary .20–.60 with work performance as a function of job complexity.
What correlations with g are reported for income, criminal behavior, and achieved SES?
g correlates about .30–.40 with income, –.20 with criminal behavior, and .50–.70 with achieved SES.
What correlation is mentioned for assortative mating on g?
Assortative mating correlations on g are around .50.
How does the passage quote Piaget regarding intelligence?
Piaget: 'Intelligence is what you use when you don't know what to do.'
What do measures of specific abilities index about individuals?
They index individual differences in different modalities of thought: reasoning with numbers, words, and figures or shapes.
What claim does the passage make about an ability threshold?
There does not appear to be an ability threshold; more ability continues to matter.
How broadly do assessments of g covary compared to other measures of individuality?
Assessments of g covary more broadly and deeper than any other measure of human individuality.
According to the text, does greater ability affect learning, working, and creating among the top 1%?
Yes; the text states 'more ability does make a difference in learning, working, and creating, even among the top 1% of ability.'
What problem limited past demonstrations of individual differences within high-ability groups?
Intellectual assessments and criterion measures lacked sufficient scope, causing ceiling effects and no variation among the able.
What corrected the past difficulty in demonstrating variation among the profoundly talented?
Modern methods that corrected for limited scope in assessments and criterion measures (as cited: Kell, Lubinski, & Benbow, 2013a; Lubinski, 2009; Park, Lubinski, & Benbow, 2007, 2008).
Does the text claim that measures of g capture all of intellectual functioning?
No; the text states 'there is much more to intellectual functioning than measures of g or general ability.'
What did Frey and Detterman (2004) show about the SAT composite in high ability samples?
They showed the SAT composite is an excellent measure of general intelligence for high ability samples.
At what age were intellectually precocious youth assessed on the SAT composite in the described study?
They were assessed at age 13.
What were the approximate cutting scores at age 13 for the top 1 in 200 before the SAT re-centering?
SAT-M ≥ 500 and SAT-V ≥ 430.
What were the approximate cutting scores at age 13 for the top 1 in 10,000 before the SAT re-centering?
SAT-M ≥ 700 and SAT-V ≥ 630.
What did Figure 3 data (Wai et al., 2009) use to reveal how abilities operate over development?
Data from over 400,000 high school students assessed between grades 9–12 and tracked for 11 years.
Which ability profile characterized individuals who pursued advanced degrees in STEM according to the text?
High general intelligence with an orientation dominated by high mathematical and spatial abilities relative to verbal ability.
How do students who secure STEM degrees compare in overall capability to those in non-STEM domains?
Within educational domains, how do more advanced degrees relate to abilities?
For the three STEM educational groupings, which ability is greater: spatial or verbal?
For most non-STEM educational domains (e.g., education, biology), which ability is greater: spatial or verbal?
Did adolescents who later earned advanced STEM credentials show a different ability pattern in youth?
What does level of general ability predict according to the text?
What does ability pattern predict according to the text?
What does the RIASEC hexagonal model describe in vocational interests?
A hexagonal structure of six general themes of vocational interests: Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, Conventional.
Give the main features of the 'Realistic (R)' theme in Holland's model.
Give the main features of the 'Investigative (I)' theme in Holland's model.
Give the main features of the 'Artistic (A)' theme in Holland's model.
Give the main features of the 'Social (S)' theme in Holland's model.
Give the main features of the 'Enterprising (E)' theme in Holland's model.
Give the main features of the 'Conventional (C)' theme in Holland's model.
How do the six RIASEC themes covary according to the text?
They covary inversely with the distance between them around the hexagon: closer themes correlate more than distant ones.
What comparable framework did Guilford et al. (1954) identify?
A similar framework labeled Mechanical, Scientific, Aesthetic Expression, Social Welfare, Business, and Clerical based on military data.
What higher-order themes exist above the RIASEC level mentioned in the text?
Super-ordinal themes such as people versus things and data versus ideas.
What relationship exists between interest dimensions and abilities at RIASEC or superordinate levels?
Interest dimensions covary in different ways with mathematical, spatial, and verbal abilities.
What happens when selection is extremely restricted to a specific ability?
Distinctive interest profiles emerge across abilities and reflect different 'types'.
What typical correlation range between abilities and interests does the text report?
Correlations are 'only' in the .20-.30 range.
According to the text, why is psychological information on motivational differences needed?
To understand attractions and aversions, different ways to create a meaningful life, and how differential development unfolds.
What observation does the text make about people with the same intellectual equipment?
They vary widely in their motivational proclivities.
What does the text say causes extreme, different kinds of intelligence?
They stem from endpoint extremes within a multivariate space of systematic sources of individual differences, not from different qualities.
According to the passage, what do conative determinants relate to?
Individual differences in energy or psychological tempo rather than content of skills or learning speed.
Which personal attributes often 'pull' with endpoint extremes of intelligence?
Constellations of nonintellectual personal attributes.
How do skilled educational-vocational counselors use abilities and interests?
They combine them to distill learning and work environments where individuals are likely to thrive in competence and experience fulfillment.
What examples of labels for conative attributes are mentioned from historical theorists?
What do studies of expertise and world-class accomplishment commonly show about top performers?
They have indefatigable capacities for study and work, indicating high pace and endurance.
Which researchers or theorists are said to agree that exceptional performers are deeply committed?
Howard Gardner, Dean Simonton, Arthur Jensen, Anders Ericsson, and Harriet Zuckerman.
According to Simonton and E. O. Wilson quoted in the passage, what must people do to 'make it big'?
Organize their whole lives around a single enterprise, start early, and labor with monomaniacal devotion.
What consensus is noted in the field of talent development?
The greatest consensus is found on the topic of conation rather than cognition or affect.
According to the text, what large individual differences were observed among exceptionally talented individuals?
What did the study of STEM graduate students show about men and women in their mid-twenties?
How did STEM graduate students' time allocation and life priorities change over the life span?
What anecdotal formula did Wilson (1998) give for time needed to succeed in an academic biology career?
What consequence does the text suggest from two faculty working different weekly hours (45 vs 65) over five years?
What three major findings about human individuality does the conclusion list?
What historical idea does the conclusion reference as a starting point for the study of individual differences?
What does combining psychological diversity with attention to opportunities produce, according to the text?
Which two extraordinary populations were compared in Figure 4 described in the text?
What did subjects report about their 'ideal job' in the longitudinal studies?
What is g or general mental ability as defined in the text?
How does the text define satisfaction in an environmental context?
How is satisfactoriness defined in the text?
What are specific abilities according to the passage?
What are under-determined or misspecified causal models as described in the text?
What everyday decision examples does the introduction give to illustrate daily choices?
What does the bounded rationality framework claim about human decision making?
What limitations are listed that constrain rational decision making under bounded rationality?
According to Bazerman and Moore (2013), what is the first step in making a rational decision about choosing a graduate program?
List the six steps Bazerman and Moore (2013) recommend for making a rational decision.
What does Simon's concept of bounded rationality indicate about human judgment?
What did Tversky and Kahneman (1974) contribute to understanding judgment and decision making?
How are the biases described by Tversky and Kahneman created according to the text?
Why is knowledge of decision-making biases useful, as stated in the text?
What instruction are participants given for estimating the 10 uncertain quantities in Problem 1?
Write a best estimate for each quantity and provide a lower and upper bound such that you are 98% confident the range contains the true value.
List two examples of items participants must estimate in Problem 1.
What confidence level must the bounds reflect in Problem 1?
98% confidence that the range surrounds the actual quantity.
What is the main question posed in Problem 2 about executive fraud?
Whether incidence of significant executive-level management fraud is more than 10 in 1,000 Big Four clients.
What response options are given for the executive fraud question in Problem 2?
What additional quantitative response does Problem 2 ask from participants?
Estimate the number of Big Four clients per 1,000 that have significant executive-level management fraud.
In Problem 3, how many people is the avian disease expected to kill if no program is adopted?
600 people
In Program B, what are the probabilities and outcomes described for saving people?
What bias is illustrated by people being overly certain that their 98% confidence ranges include the true value?
Overconfidence
According to the overconfidence example, how many of ten 98% ranges do most readers actually include the true answers?
Most readers include between three (30%) and seven (70%) of the correct answers
In the anchoring example, how did different anchors (10 vs 200) affect people's estimates of executive-level management fraud?
Estimates from those anchored at 10 (out of 1,000) were about half the size of estimates from those anchored at 200
What general effect does an initial anchor have on judgments, according to the text?
An initial anchor is likely to influence judgments, with people insufficiently adjusting away from it
In the disease problem framing, what are the outcomes of Program D?
What pattern of choices do most individuals show between Programs A/C and B/D in Tversky & Kahneman's problem?
Most choose Program A in the saving frame and Program D in the loss frame
How does framing affect risk preference according to the passage?
People are risk averse for gains (save lives) and risk seeking for losses (avoid deaths)
What is an implied reference point when the problem is framed in terms of saving lives?
The worst outcome of 600 deaths
What is an implied reference point when the problem is framed in terms of losses?
The best outcome of no deaths due to the avian disease
List three cognitive biases or errors mentioned that affect human judgment.
What two bounded aspects of decision making did Thaler (2000) propose?
What does bounded willpower explain in everyday behavior?
Giving greater weight to present concerns than future concerns (e.g., failing to save for retirement)
How does Thaler describe bounded self-interest?
Caring about outcomes of others, sometimes valuing their outcomes positively (e.g., fairness)
What does the concept of 'bounded ethicality' refer to?
The notion that our ethics are limited in ways we are not even aware of ourselves.
What is 'bounded awareness' as developed by Chugh and Bazerman (2007)?
The broad array of focusing failures that cause us to fail to notice obvious and important information available to us.
How have judgment and decision-making research impacted other fields?
They transformed behavioral economics, behavioral finance, and behavioral marketing by applying and extending judgment and decision-making research.
What did early research (Fischhoff, 1982) show about awareness of biases?
Awareness of biases does little to reduce those biases.
What distinction do Stanovich and West (2000) make in decision making?
They distinguish between System 1 (intuitive) and System 2 (deliberative) decision making.
What tendency increases reliance on System 1 thinking?
Being busier, more rushed, or having more on one's mind.
Why might executives often rely on System 1 thinking?
Because the frantic pace of professional life makes them more likely to rely on System 1 thinking.
What is a key path to reducing biases and improving decisions?
Transitioning from trusting intuitive System 1 thinking toward engaging more deliberative System 2 thought.
What decision-making problem did Michael Lewis (2003) identify in baseball executives?
Baseball executives overgeneralize from personal experiences, overweight recent performance, and overvalue what they see, producing biased decisions.
How did Billy Beane improve the Oakland Athletics' outcomes according to Lewis (2003)?
By substituting valid predictors of future performance (System 2 thinking) for biased intuition, improving team performance despite a limited payroll.
What is the core idea of Thaler and Sunstein's 'Nudge' (2008)?
Decision architects can change environments to account for human bias and trigger better decisions without debiasing individuals directly.
What effect did automatic enrollment (opt-out default) have on 401(k) participation in Beshears et al. (2008)?
Automatic enrollment with an opt-out option significantly increases net enrollment in employer 401(k) programs.
What human tendency do default changes counteract, as shown in the 401(k) example?
The tendency to stick with the status quo (inaction) and delay proactive enrollment decisions.
What did Johnson and Goldstein's (2003) organ donation study compare?
Opt-in policies (require proactive consent) versus opt-out policies (default to donation) across European countries.
What were the consent rate ranges for opt-in versus opt-out organ donation policies reported by Johnson and Goldstein (2003)?
Opt-in consent rates ranged from 4.25% to 44%; opt-out consent rates ranged from 85.9% to 99.98%.
What conclusion did the organ donation example illustrate about decision architecture?
Changing defaults can dramatically increase donation rates without changing the options available to citizens.
According to the text, why do intuitive defaults sometimes lead to harmful outcomes?
Intuitive defaults that ignore human biases can produce choices that cause large harms, such as unnecessary deaths from low organ consent rates.
What research topic does Dr. Anita Tusche study at Queen's University?
Dr. Anita Tusche studies human decision making.
According to the text, is human decision making always rational?
No; the text states rationality is desirable but not always present when humans make judgments or decisions.
What is the role of psychological science in decision making as described in the video?
To understand what guides judgments and decision making and to use that knowledge to promote better decision strategies.
What did Simon, Kahneman, and Tversky's work highlight about human decision making?
They highlighted the surprising and predictable deficiencies of the human mind when making decisions.
What is 'anchoring' as defined in the vocabulary?
The bias to be affected by an initial anchor, even if arbitrary, and to insufficiently adjust judgments away from it.
How are 'biases' defined in the text?
Systematic and predictable mistakes that influence the judgment of even very talented human beings.
What does 'bounded awareness' refer to?
The systematic ways in which we fail to notice obvious and important information available to us.
Define 'bounded ethicality' from the vocabulary list.
The systematic ways in which our ethics are limited in ways we are not even aware of ourselves.
What is 'bounded rationality' according to the text?
A model suggesting humans try to make rational decisions but are bounded due to cognitive limitations.
What does 'bounded self-interest' describe?
The systematic and predictable ways in which we care about the outcomes of others.
What is 'bounded willpower'?
The tendency to place greater weight on present concerns rather than future concerns.
How is 'framing' defined in the vocabulary?
The bias to be systematically affected by the way information is presented while objective information is constant.
What are 'heuristics' as given in the text?
Cognitive strategies that simplify decision making by using mental short-cuts.
What does 'overconfident' mean in this vocabulary?
The bias to have greater confidence in your judgment than is warranted based on a rational assessment.
How is 'System 1' characterized?
Our intuitive decision-making system: typically fast, automatic, effortless, implicit, and emotional.
What is 'System 2' in decision-making?
System 2 is our more deliberative decision-making system that is slower, conscious, effortful, explicit, and logical.
\(\(IQ = \frac{\text{mental age}}{\text{chronological age}} \times 100\)\)
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