What are the main components of the nervous system?
Central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS).
What does the resting membrane potential arise from?
Ion distribution across the membrane.
How do neurons control their excitability?
Through graded potentials.
What is an action potential?
A rapid change in membrane potential.
What are the two major divisions of the nervous system?
CNS and PNS.
What is the functional unit of the nervous system?
Neuron.
What do glial cells do?
Support neurons but do not generate nerve impulses.
What does the somatic nervous system control?
Voluntary behaviors like walking and chewing.
What is the structure of a neuron?
Includes cell body, dendrites, axon, axon hillock, and axon terminal.
What is the role of dendrites?
Receive information through neurotransmitters.
What does the axon do?
Carries outgoing signals to target cells.
What is the axon hillock?
The part of the axon that generates action potentials.
What are afferent neurons?
Transmit information into the CNS from receptors.
What do efferent neurons do?
Carry out commands from the CNS to effectors.
What do efferent neurons connect to?
Muscles, glands, neurons, and other cells
Where is the cell body with multiple dendrites located?
In the CNS
Where is most of the axon located?
In the PNS
What is the function of interneurons?
Integrators and signal changers
Where do interneurons lie?
Entirely within the CNS
What is the neuron's job?
Fire an electrical impulse
What is the resting state of a neuron?
A stable negative potential at -70 mV
What establishes the resting membrane potential?
Concentration gradients by ion pumps
What is the resting membrane potential influenced by?
Movement of ions across the membrane
What does the ATPase pump do?
Transports ions back to original locations
What is the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz Equation used for?
Describing resting membrane potential
What happens when the membrane becomes permeable to an ion?
The ion moves down its electrochemical gradient
What is depolarization?
Membrane voltage moving from RMP to more positive
What is repolarization?
Membrane voltage returning to RMP from depolarized state
What is hyperpolarization?
Membrane voltage becoming more negative than RMP
What are graded potentials?
Changes in membrane potential confined to a small region
Why are they called graded potentials?
Magnitude of potential change can vary
What is summation in graded potentials?
Combining multiple graded potentials to reach threshold
What are graded potentials?
Changes in membrane potential confined to a small region of the plasma membrane.
Why are they called graded potentials?
Because the magnitude of the potential change can vary.
What is summation in graded potentials?
The addition of graded potentials from several stimuli occurring in rapid succession.
What does summation aid in?
Integration and reaching the threshold potential for an action potential.
What influences graded potentials?
Passive membrane properties such as resistance, capacitance, and internal resistance.
What does membrane resistance refer to?
The leakiness of the membrane, described by V=IR.
What is membrane capacitance?
The ability of the membrane to store charge, affecting the speed of potential change.
What is internal resistance?
The ease of current flow through the cell.
What are the main components of the nervous system?
Central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS).
What does the CNS consist of?
The brain and spinal cord.
What does the PNS consist of?
Nerves connecting the CNS with muscles, glands, and sense organs.
What are the two major cell types in the nervous system?
Neurons and glial cells.
What is the function of neurons?
To generate electrical signals called action potentials or nerve impulses.
What is the role of glial cells?
To support neurons without generating nerve impulses.
What does the somatic nervous system control?
Motor and sensory processes for voluntary behaviors.
What is the goal of the nervous system?
To receive, create, and send electrical signals to regulate behavior.
What are the two divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System?
Parasympathetic and Sympathetic
What are the parts of a neuron?
Cell body, Dendrites, Axon, Initial segment/Axon hillock, Axon terminal
What does the cell body (soma) contain?
Nucleus and ribosomes
What is the function of dendrites?
Receive information through neurotransmitters
What does the axon do?
Carries outgoing signals to target cells
What is the role of the axon hillock?
Generates action potentials
What is the function of the axon terminal?
Releases neurotransmitters
What are the three main types of neurons?
Afferent, Efferent, Interneurons
What do afferent neurons do?
Transmit information into the CNS from receptors
What do efferent neurons do?
Transmit information out of the CNS to effector cells
What is the function of interneurons?
Integrate groups of afferent and efferent neurons
What is the resting membrane potential?
Stable negative potential at -70 mV
What establishes the resting membrane potential?
Concentration gradients and ion pumps
What happens during an action potential?
Ions are transported back to original locations
What does the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz Equation describe?
Resting membrane potential accounting for monovalent ions
What happens when the membrane becomes permeable to an ion?
The ion moves down its electrochemical gradient
What happens with no permeability to an ion?
No contribution to the membrane potential.
What occurs when the membrane becomes permeable to an ion?
The ion moves down its electrochemical gradient.
What does the membrane potential approach when an ion moves?
The ion's Nernst potential.
What is the Nernst potential for K+?
Ek = -95 mV.
What is the Nernst potential for Cl-?
Ecl = -45 mV.
What is depolarization?
Membrane voltage moves from resting to more positive.
What is repolarization?
Membrane voltage returns to resting from depolarized state.
What is hyperpolarization?
Membrane voltage becomes more negative than resting potential.
What are graded potentials?
Changes in membrane potential confined to a small region.
What does summation refer to in graded potentials?
Addition of graded potentials from several stimuli.
What influences graded potentials?
Membrane resistance, capacitance, and internal resistance.
What is membrane resistance?
Leakiness affecting potential change (V=IR).
What is membrane capacitance?
Ability to store charge, slowing potential changes.
What is internal resistance?
Ease of current flow through the cell.
What are the learning objectives in neurophysiology?
Components of nervous system, resting membrane potential, graded potentials, action potential, synaptic transmission.
What is the goal of the nervous system?
To receive, create, and send electrical signals to cause and regulate behavior
What are the two major divisions of the nervous system?
Central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS)
What does the CNS consist of?
The brain and spinal cord
What does the PNS consist of?
Nerves connecting the brain or spinal cord with muscles, glands, and sense organs
What are the two types of PNS?
Somatic and autonomic
What is a neuron?
The functional unit of the nervous system that generates action potentials
What are glial cells?
Non-neuronal cells that support neurons but do not generate nerve impulses
What is the function of somatic PNS?
Motor and sensory processes for voluntary behaviors
What are the parts of a neuron?
Cell body, dendrites, axon, initial segment/axon hillock, axon terminal
What does the cell body (soma) contain?
Nucleus and ribosomes
What is the function of dendrites?
Receive information through neurotransmitters
What does the axon do?
Carries outgoing signals to target cells
What is the axon terminal?
End of each branch that releases neurotransmitters
What are afferent neurons?
Bring information into the CNS from receptors
What are efferent neurons?
Transmit information out of the CNS to effector cells
What are interneurons?
Integrators and signal changers within the CNS
What is the resting state of a neuron?
The state before firing an electrical impulse
What is the resting membrane potential?
The electrical potential difference across the neuron's membrane at rest
What establishes the concentration gradient for resting membrane potential?
Ion pump
What is the resting membrane potential value?
−70 mV
What ion's Nernst potential influences the resting membrane potential?
K+
How is influx of ions balanced in resting membrane potential?
Efflux of ions through Leak Channels
What does the ATPase Pump do after an action potential?
Returns ions to original locations
What does the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz Equation describe?
Resting membrane potential accounting for monovalent ions
What is the key concept about membrane potential?
Weighted sum of the Nernst potentials of permeable ions
What happens when the membrane becomes permeable to an ion?
Ion moves down its electrochemical gradient
What is depolarization?
Membrane voltage moving from resting potential to more positive
What is repolarization?
Membrane voltage returning to resting potential from depolarized state
What is hyperpolarization?
Membrane voltage becoming more negative than resting potential
What are graded potentials?
Changes in membrane potential confined to a small region
What does summation refer to in graded potentials?
Addition of graded potentials from several stimuli
What factors influence graded potentials?
Membrane resistance, capacitance, and internal resistance
What is the relationship between membrane resistance and potential?
V=IR
What does membrane capacitance affect?
Speed at which membrane potential can change
What can change in brane potential?
Internal resistance (ease of current flow through cell)
What are glucose transporters expressed in?
Various tissues of the body
What could the Y axis label be?
Not specified
Which tissues have the highest Vmax for GLUT?
Not specified
What happens to Km of GLUT2 with a mutation?
Changes Vmax to that of GLUT4
GLUT3 transports what with lower affinity?
2-deoxy-glucose
What would the curve look like for GLUT3?
Not specified
What happens if GLUT4 operates like a glucose channel?
Line shape changes as a function of [glucose]
What are the main components of the nervous system?
CNS and PNS
What does the resting membrane potential arise from?
Ion distribution across the membrane
What do neurons control through graded potentials?
Excitability
What is the goal of the nervous system?
Send electrical signals to regulate behavior
What two major divisions does the nervous system have?
CNS and PNS
What composes the CNS?
Brain and spinal cord
What composes the PNS?
Nerves connecting CNS to muscles and glands
What are the two major cell types in the nervous system?
Neurons and glial cells
What does a neuron generate?
Action potentials or nerve impulses
What do glial cells do?
Support neurons
What processes does the somatic PNS control?
Voluntary behaviors
What are the parts of a neuron?
Cell body, dendrites, axon, axon hillock, axon terminal
What does the cell body of a neuron contain?
Nucleus and ribosomes
What do dendrites do?
Receive information
What does the axon do?
Carries outgoing signals
What generates action potentials in a neuron?
Initial segment/Axon hillock
What releases neurotransmitters?
Axon terminal
What do afferent neurons do?
Bring in information to the CNS
What do afferent neurons do?
Bring information into the CNS from receptors.
What is the structure of afferent neurons?
Single process splits into a long peripheral axon and a short central axon.
What do efferent neurons do?
Transmit information out of the CNS to effector cells.
What is the structure of efferent neurons?
Cell body with multiple dendrites in CNS; most axon in PNS.
What do interneurons do?
Integrate afferent and efferent neurons into reflex circuits.
Where are interneurons located?
Entirely within the CNS.
What is the resting state of a neuron?
A stable state before firing an electrical impulse.
What is the resting membrane potential?
Typically around -70 mV.
What establishes the resting membrane potential?
Concentration gradients by ion pumps.
What happens during depolarization?
Membrane voltage moves from resting potential to more positive.
What happens during repolarization?
Membrane voltage returns to resting potential from depolarized state.
What is hyperpolarization?
Membrane voltage becomes more negative than resting potential.
What is the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz Equation?
Quantitative description of resting membrane potential accounting for ions.
What is the Nernst potential?
The equilibrium potential for a specific ion.
What is the role of the ATPase Pump?
Transports ions back to original locations after action potential events.
What is the effect of ion permeability on membrane potential?
Membrane potential changes based on ion permeability to specific ions.
What is repolarization?
Return of membrane voltage to resting membrane potential (RMP) from depolarized state.
What is hyperpolarization?
Membrane voltage becomes more negative than resting membrane potential (RMP).
What are graded potentials?
Changes in membrane potential confined to a small region of the plasma membrane.
Why are they called graded potentials?
Magnitude of the potential change can vary (is 'graded').
What is summation in graded potentials?
Addition of graded potentials from several stimuli occurring in rapid succession.
What influences graded potentials?
Membrane resistance, membrane capacitance, internal resistance.
What is the goal of the nervous system?
Use cells to receive, create, and send electrical signals to regulate behavior.
What are the two major divisions of the nervous system?
Central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS).
What composes the central nervous system (CNS)?
Brain and spinal cord.
What does the peripheral nervous system (PNS) consist of?
Nerves connecting the brain or spinal cord with body muscles, glands, and sense organs.
What are the two major cell types in the nervous system?
Neurons and glial cells.
What is the function of neurons?
Generate electrical signals called action potentials or nerve impulses.
What are glial cells?
Non-neuronal cells that support neurons but do not generate nerve impulses.
What does the somatic nervous system control?
Voluntary movements and sensory information.
What does the autonomic nervous system control?
Involuntary functions like heart rate and digestion.
What is the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)?
Includes somatic motor and sensory processes for voluntary behaviors.
What does the somatic system control?
Voluntary behaviors like walking and chewing.
What are the main parts of a neuron?
Cell body, dendrites, axon, initial segment/axon hillock, axon terminal.
What is the function of dendrites?
Receive information through neurotransmitters.
What does the axon do?
Carries outgoing signals to target cells.
What is the initial segment of a neuron?
Portion of axon that generates action potentials.
What is the role of the axon terminal?
Releases neurotransmitters.
What are afferent neurons?
Bring information into the CNS from receptors.
What do efferent neurons do?
Transmit information out of the CNS to effector cells.
What is the function of interneurons?
Integrate afferent and efferent neurons into reflex circuits.
What is the resting membrane potential?
Stable negative potential at -70 mV.
How is the resting membrane potential established?
By ion pumps creating concentration gradients.
What happens during an action potential?
Ions are returned to original locations after depolarization and repolarization.
What is the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz Equation?
Describes resting membrane potential accounting for monovalent ions.
What is the resting membrane potential influenced by?
Monovalent ions
What is the equation for membrane potential with divalent ions?
It becomes more complex
What is the mantra for membrane potential?
The membrane potential is a weighted sum of the Nernst potentials of the permeable ions
What happens when there is no permeability?
No contribution to the membrane potential
What occurs when the membrane becomes permeable to an ion?
The ion moves down its electrochemical gradient
What is the Nernst potential for K+?
Ek = -95 mV
What is the Nernst potential for Cl-?
Ecl = -45 mV
What does depolarization refer to?
Membrane voltage moving from resting membrane potential to more positive
What does repolarization refer to?
Membrane voltage returning to resting membrane potential from a depolarized state
What does hyperpolarization refer to?
Membrane voltage becoming more negative than resting membrane potential
What are graded potentials?
Changes in membrane potential confined to a small region
What does summation refer to in graded potentials?
Addition of graded potentials from several stimuli before they die out
What influences graded potentials?
Membrane resistance, capacitance, and internal resistance
What is the focus of neurophysiology learning objectives?
Components of the nervous system and membrane potential changes
How do neurons control excitability?
Through graded potentials
What is the relationship between ion diffusion and action potentials?
Ion diffusion relates to the mechanism of action potential and propagation
What do neurons control through graded potentials?
Excitability
What concepts are applied to the action potential mechanism?
Membrane potential and ion diffusion
What are the two major divisions of the nervous system?
CNS and PNS
What is the CNS composed of?
Brain and spinal cord
What does the PNS consist of?
Nerves connecting CNS with body
What are the two major cell types in the nervous system?
Neurons and glial cells
What do neurons generate?
Action potentials or nerve impulses
What is the role of glial cells?
Support neurons
What processes does the somatic PNS control?
Motor and sensory for voluntary behaviors
What is the function of afferent neurons?
Bring in information to CNS
What do efferent neurons do?
Transmit information out of CNS
What is the role of interneurons?
Integrate afferent and efferent neurons
What does a neuron do when it fires an impulse?
Tells the next neuron to do the same
What defines a neuron's resting state?
Properties that determine its trip to threshold
What is the cell body of a neuron also called?
Soma
What do dendrites do?
Receive information through neurotransmitters
What is the function of the axon?
Carries outgoing signals to target cells
What generates action potentials in a neuron?
Initial segment/Axon hillock
What is released at the axon terminal?
Neurotransmitters
What does the resting membrane potential keep at?
−70 mV
What establishes the concentration gradients?
Ion pump
What is the effect of greater efflux of ions?
Creates charge difference
What balances small influx of ions?
Efflux of ions through Leak Channels
What does the ATPase Pump do?
Transports ions back to original locations
What happens during action potential?
Pump returns ions after depolarization and repolarization
What does the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz Equation describe?
Resting membrane potential accounting for monovalent ions
What is the weighted sum of the Nernst potentials?
Membrane potential is weighted sum of permeable ions' Nernst potentials
What happens when the membrane becomes permeable to an ion?
Ion moves down its electrochemical gradient
What does depolarization refer to?
Membrane voltage moving from resting potential to more positive
What does repolarization refer to?
Membrane voltage returning to resting potential
What does hyperpolarization refer to?
Membrane voltage becoming more negative than resting potential
What are graded potentials?
Changes in membrane potential confined to a small region
Why are they called graded potentials?
Magnitude of potential change can vary
What is summation in graded potentials?
Addition of graded potentials from several stimuli
What influences graded potentials?
Membrane resistance and capacitance
What are passive membrane properties that influence graded potentials?
Membrane resistance, membrane capacitance, internal resistance
What does membrane resistance refer to?
Leakiness of the membrane
What is membrane capacitance?
Ability to store charge, affecting speed of potential change
What is internal resistance?
Ease of current flow through the cell
What is the goal of the nervous system?
To receive, create, and send electrical signals to regulate behavior
What are the two major divisions of the nervous system?
Central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS)
What composes the central nervous system (CNS)?
Brain and spinal cord
What does the peripheral nervous system (PNS) consist of?
Nerves connecting CNS to muscles, glands, and sense organs
What are the two major cell types in the nervous system?
Neurons and glial cells
What is the function of neurons?
Generate electrical signals called action potentials
What do glial cells do?
Support neurons but do not generate nerve impulses
What is the structure of a neuron?
Cell body, dendrites, axon, initial segment, axon terminal
What does the cell body (soma) contain?
Nucleus and ribosomes
What are dendrites?
Branches that receive information through neurotransmitters
What is the function of the axon?
Carries outgoing signals to target cells
What is the axon hillock?
Initial segment of axon that generates action potentials
What do axon terminals do?
Release neurotransmitters
What is the initial segment of the axon?
Portion of axon beyond the hilock; generates action potentials and may branch into collaterals.
What is the axon terminal?
End of each branch; releases neurotransmitters.
What do afferent neurons do?
Bring in information; transmit information into the CNS from peripheral receptors.
How do afferent neurons transmit information?
Single process splits into a long peripheral process in the PNS and a short central process entering the CNS.
What do efferent neurons do?
Carry out commands; transmit information out of the CNS to effector cells.
Where are the cell bodies of efferent neurons located?
Cell body with multiple dendrites and a small segment of the axon are in the CNS; most of the axon is in the PNS.
What is the role of interneurons?
Function as integrators and signal changers; integrate groups of afferent and efferent neurons into reflex circuits.
Where do interneurons lie?
Entirely within the CNS.
What is the neuron's job?
Take itself from a resting state, fire an electrical impulse, and tell the next neuron to do the same.
What is the resting membrane potential?
Stable negative resting potential achieved at -70 mV.
What establishes the resting membrane potential?
Concentration gradients and small negative potential.
What is the role of the ATPase pump?
Transports ions back to their original locations after action potentials.
What does the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz equation describe?
Quantitative description of the resting membrane potential accounting for monovalent ions.
What happens when the membrane becomes permeable to an ion?
The ion moves down its electrochemical gradient to change the membrane potential closer to that ion’s Nernst potential.
What is the resting membrane potential for K+?
Ek = -95 mV.
What is the resting membrane potential for Cl-?
Ecl = -45 mV.
What are the terms used for changes in membrane potential?
Terms describe the direction of changes in membrane potential relative to the resting membrane potential.
What does depolarization refer to?
Membrane voltage moving from resting membrane potential to more positive towards zero.
What does repolarization refer to?
Membrane voltage returning to resting membrane potential from a depolarized state.
What does hyperpolarization refer to?
Membrane voltage becoming more negative than resting membrane potential.
What are graded potentials?
Changes in membrane potential confined to a small region of the plasma membrane.
Why are they called graded potentials?
Because the magnitude of the potential change can vary.
What is summation in graded potentials?
Addition of graded potentials from several stimuli occurring in rapid succession.
What influences graded potentials?
Membrane resistance, capacitance, and internal resistance.
What is the goal of the nervous system?
To use cells to receive, create, and send electrical signals to regulate behavior.
What are the two major divisions of the nervous system?
Central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS).
What does the CNS consist of?
The brain and spinal cord.
What does the PNS consist of?
Nerves connecting the brain or spinal cord with muscles, glands, and sense organs.
What are the two major cell types in the nervous system?
Neurons and glial cells.
What is the functional unit of the nervous system?
Neuron.
What do neurons generate?
Electrical signals called action potentials or nerve impulses.
What are glial cells?
Non-neuronal cells that support neurons.
What is the functional unit of the nervous system?
Neuron
What do neurons generate?
Electrical signals called action potentials
What are glial cells?
Non-neuronal cells that support neurons
What does the Central Nervous System (CNS) consist of?
Brain and spinal cord
What does the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) include?
Somatic and autonomic systems
What is the function of the somatic nervous system?
Motor and sensory processes for voluntary behaviors
What are the parts of a neuron?
Cell body, dendrites, axon, axon hillock, axon terminal
What does the cell body (soma) contain?
Nucleus and ribosomes
What is the role of dendrites?
Receive information through neurotransmitters
What does the axon do?
Carries outgoing signals to target cells
What is the axon hillock?
Portion of axon that generates action potentials
What is the function of the axon terminal?
Releases neurotransmitters
What are afferent neurons responsible for?
Bringing information into the CNS
What do efferent neurons do?
Transmit information out of the CNS to effector cells
What is the function of interneurons?
Integrate afferent and efferent neurons into reflex circuits
What is the resting membrane potential typically set at?
−70 mV
What establishes the concentration gradients for the resting membrane potential?
Ion pump
What happens during an action potential?
Ions are transported back to their original locations
What does the pump do during an action potential?
Returns ions to their original locations after depolarization and repolarization.
What does the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz Equation describe?
The resting membrane potential accounting for monovalent ions.
What is the mantra for membrane potential?
The membrane potential is a weighted sum of the Nernst potentials of the permeable ions.
What happens when the membrane becomes permeable to an ion?
The ion moves down its electrochemical gradient to change the membrane potential.
What is the Nernst potential for K+?
Ek = -95 mV
What is the Nernst potential for Cl-?
Ecl = -45 mV
What is depolarization?
Membrane voltage moving from resting membrane potential to more positive towards zero.
What is repolarization?
Membrane voltage returning to resting membrane potential from a depolarized state.
What is hyperpolarization?
Membrane voltage becoming more negative than resting membrane potential.
What are graded potentials?
Changes in membrane potential confined to a small region of the plasma membrane.
What is summation in graded potentials?
Addition of graded potentials from several stimuli occurring in rapid succession.
What influences graded potentials?
Membrane resistance, capacitance, and internal resistance.
What is the main focus of neurophysiology?
Understanding the main components of the nervous system.
What are the main components of the nervous system?
Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
What does the CNS consist of?
Brain and spinal cord
What does the PNS consist of?
Nerves connecting CNS to muscles, glands, and sense organs
What are the two types of PNS?
Somatic and Autonomic
What is the functional unit of the nervous system?
Neuron
What do glial cells do?
Support neurons but do not generate nerve impulses
What is the main function of neurons?
Generate electrical signals called action potentials
What does the somatic PNS control?
Motor and sensory processes for voluntary behaviors
What are the parts of a neuron?
Cell body, dendrites, axon, axon hillock, axon terminal
What is the role of dendrites?
Receive information through neurotransmitters
What is the function of the axon?
Carries outgoing signals to target cells
What is the initial segment of the axon?
Portion that generates action potentials
What are afferent neurons?
Bring information into the CNS from receptors
What do efferent neurons do?
Transmit commands from CNS to effector cells
What is the role of interneurons?
Integrate afferent and efferent neurons into reflex circuits
What is the goal of the nervous system?
Receive, create, and send electrical signals to regulate behavior
What is the job of a neuron?
To take itself from a resting state, fire an electrical impulse, and tell the next neuron to do the same.
What is the resting membrane potential?
The stable negative resting potential is at -70 mV.
What establishes the resting membrane potential?
Concentration gradients and ion pumps generate a small negative potential.
What is the effect of K+ ions on resting membrane potential?
Greater net movement of K+ makes the resting potential closer to the Nernst potential of K+.
What balances small influx of ions?
Efflux of ions through Leak Channels balances small influxes.
What does the ATPase Pump do?
Transports ions back to their original locations after action potential.
What is the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz Equation?
A quantitative description of the resting membrane potential accounting for monovalent ions.
What happens when the membrane becomes permeable to an ion?
The ion moves down its electrochemical gradient, changing the membrane potential closer to that ion's Nernst potential.
What does depolarization refer to?
Membrane voltage moving from resting membrane potential to more positive towards zero.
What does repolarization refer to?
Membrane voltage returning to resting membrane potential from a depolarized state.
What does hyperpolarization refer to?
Membrane voltage becoming more negative than resting membrane potential.
What are graded potentials?
Changes in membrane potential confined to a small region of the plasma membrane.
What is summation in neurons?
Addition of graded potentials from several stimuli occurring in rapid succession.
What is the threshold potential?
The level of membrane potential that must be reached for an action potential to occur.
What is the threshold potential?
The point at which an action potential will occur.
What influences graded potentials?
Passive membrane properties, including membrane resistance, capacitance, and internal resistance.
What does membrane resistance relate to?
It relates to the leakiness of the membrane, described by V=IR.
What is membrane capacitance?
Ability to store charge, affecting the speed of potential change.
What is the role of internal resistance?
It describes the ease of current flow through the cell.
What is the goal of the nervous system?
To receive, create, and send electrical signals to regulate behavior.
What are the two major divisions of the nervous system?
Central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS).
What does the CNS consist of?
The brain and spinal cord.
What does the PNS consist of?
Nerves connecting the CNS with muscles, glands, and sense organs.
What are the two major cell types in the nervous system?
Neurons and glial cells.
What is the function of neurons?
To generate electrical signals called action potentials or nerve impulses.
What is the role of glial cells?
To support neurons without generating nerve impulses.
What does the somatic PNS control?
Motor and sensory processes for voluntary behaviors.
What are the parts of a neuron?
Cell body (soma), dendrites, and axon.
What does the cell body (soma) contain?
Nucleus and ribosomes.
What do dendrites do?
Receive information typically through neurotransmitters.
What does the axon do?
Carries outgoing signals.
What is the cell body of a neuron called?
Soma
What does the cell body contain?
Nucleus and ribosomes
What do dendrites do?
Receive information
What does the axon carry?
Outgoing signals
What is the function of the axon hillock?
Generates action potentials
What is released at the axon terminal?
Neurotransmitters
What do afferent neurons do?
Bring in information
Where do afferent neurons transmit information to?
CNS from peripheral receptors
What do efferent neurons do?
Carry out commands
Where do efferent neurons transmit information to?
Effector cells
What is the role of interneurons?
Integrators and signal changers
What is the resting state of a neuron?
Electrical impulse readiness
What is the resting membrane potential typically set at?
−70 mV
What establishes the concentration gradients in a neuron?
Ion pump
What happens during an action potential?
Ions are returned to original locations
What does the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz equation describe?
Resting membrane potential accounting for ions
What influences the membrane potential?
Weighted sum of Nernst potentials of permeable ions
What happens when the membrane becomes permeable to an ion?
Ion moves down its EC gradient
What is depolarization?
Membrane voltage moving from resting membrane potential (RMP) to more positive towards zero.
What is repolarization?
Membrane voltage returning to the resting membrane potential from a depolarized state.
What is hyperpolarization?
Membrane voltage becoming more negative than the resting membrane potential.
What are graded potentials?
Changes in membrane potential confined to a small region of the plasma membrane.
Why are they called graded potentials?
The magnitude of the potential change can vary.
What is summation in graded potentials?
Addition of graded potentials from several stimuli before each has died out.
What factors influence graded potentials?
Membrane resistance, membrane capacitance, internal resistance.
What is the goal of the nervous system?
To use cells to receive, create, and send electrical signals to cause and regulate behavior.
What are the two major divisions of the nervous system?
Central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS).
What does the central nervous system consist of?
The brain and spinal cord.
What does the peripheral nervous system consist of?
Nerves that connect the brain or spinal cord with the body.
What are the main components of the nervous system?
Brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves.
What is the resting membrane potential?
The baseline voltage across the membrane of an excitable cell.
How do neurons control their excitability?
Through graded potentials.
What is the mechanism of action potential propagation?
Involves changes in membrane potential and ion diffusion.
What composes the central nervous system (CNS)?
The brain and spinal cord
What is the peripheral nervous system (PNS)?
Nerves connecting the brain or spinal cord with the body's muscles, glands, and sense organs
What are the two major cell types in the nervous system?
Neuron and glial cells
What is the function of a neuron?
Generates electrical signals called action potentials
What do glial cells do?
Support neurons but do not generate nerve impulses
What does the somatic nervous system control?
Voluntary behaviors like walking and chewing
What are the parts of a neuron?
Cell body, dendrites, axon, initial segment, axon terminal
What is the role of dendrites?
Receive information typically through neurotransmitters
What is the function of the axon?
Carries outgoing signals to target cells
What is the axon hillock?
Portion of axon that generates action potentials
What do afferent neurons do?
Transmit information into the CNS from receptors
What is the function of efferent neurons?
Transmit information out of the CNS to effector cells
What do interneurons do?
Integrate groups of afferent and efferent neurons
What is the resting membrane potential?
Stable negative resting potential at −70 mV
What establishes the resting membrane potential?
Concentration gradients and ion pump
What keeps the resting potential at −70 mV?
A small negative potential generates this resting potential.
What affects the resting membrane potential?
Greater net movement of ions across the membrane.
What balances small influx of ions?
Efflux of ions through Leak Channels.
What does the ATPase Pump do?
Transports ions back to original locations and concentrations.
What happens during action potential?
The pump returns ions after depolarization and repolarization.
What does the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz Equation describe?
Resting membrane potential accounting for monovalent ions.
What is the mantra for membrane potential?
The membrane potential is a weighted sum of the Nernst potentials of permeable ions.
What happens when the membrane becomes permeable to an ion?
The ion moves down its EC gradient to change the membrane potential.
What is depolarization?
Membrane voltage moving from resting membrane potential to more positive.
What is repolarization?
Membrane voltage returning to resting membrane potential from a depolarized state.
What is hyperpolarization?
Membrane voltage becoming more negative than resting membrane potential.
What are graded potentials?
Changes in membrane potential confined to a small region of the plasma membrane.
What does summation refer to in graded potentials?
Addition of graded potentials from several stimuli occurring in rapid succession.
What influences graded potentials?
Membrane resistance, capacitance, and internal resistance.
What does membrane resistance affect?
It influences the speed at which membrane potential can change.
What is the role of membrane capacitance?
It stores charge, slowing the speed of potential change.
What happens to Km of GLUT2 with a mutation changing its Vmax to GLUT4?
The Km may change, affecting glucose transport efficiency.
How does GLUT3 transport 2-deoxy-glucose?
GLUT3 has a lower affinity for 2-deoxy-glucose compared to glucose.
What is the shape of GLUT4 function as a glucose channel?
The curve would be linear as a function of [glucose].
What are the main components of the nervous system?
Central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS).
What does the CNS consist of?
The brain and spinal cord.
What does the PNS consist of?
Nerves connecting CNS to muscles, glands, and sense organs.
What are the two divisions of the PNS?
Somatic and autonomic.
What is the functional unit of the nervous system?
Neuron.
What do glial cells do?
Support neurons but do not generate nerve impulses.
What is the role of afferent neurons?
Bring information into the CNS from receptors.
What is the role of efferent neurons?
Transmit information out of the CNS to effector cells.
What is the function of interneurons?
Act as a hub between afferent and efferent neurons.
What does the cell body of a neuron contain?
Nucleus and ribosomes.
What do dendrites do?
Receive information typically through neurotransmitters.
What does the axon do?
Carries outgoing signals to target cells.
What is the initial segment of a neuron?
Portion of axon that arises from the cell body.
What happens at the axon terminal?
Releases neurotransmitters.
What is the location of the cell body in neurons?
In the CNS, with axon mostly in the PNS.
What is the role of interneurons?
They act as integrators and signal changers.
Where do interneurons lie?
Entirely within the CNS.
What is the neuron's job?
Fire an electrical impulse and signal the next neuron.
What is the resting membrane potential?
Approximately -70 mV.
What establishes the resting membrane potential?
Concentration gradients and ion pumps.
What happens during depolarization?
Membrane voltage moves from RMP to more positive values.
What occurs during repolarization?
Membrane voltage returns to RMP from a depolarized state.
What is hyperpolarization?
Membrane voltage becomes more negative than RMP.
What are graded potentials?
Changes in membrane potential confined to a small region.
What does summation in graded potentials refer to?
Addition of graded potentials from several stimuli.
What is the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz Equation?
A quantitative description of resting membrane potential.
What does permeability of the membrane affect?
The contribution to the membrane potential.
What is the effect of ion movement on membrane potential?
It changes the membrane potential closer to the ion's Nernst potential.
What are graded potentials?
Changes in potential that can vary in magnitude.
What is summation in graded potentials?
Addition of graded potentials from several stimuli before they die out.
What aids in reaching the threshold potential?
Summation of several small potentials.
What influences graded potentials?
Membrane resistance, capacitance, and internal resistance.
What is the resting state potential?
-70mV
What are the main components of the nervous system?
Central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS).
What constitutes the CNS?
Brain and spinal cord.
What does the PNS consist of?
Nerves connecting CNS with muscles, glands, and sense organs.
What are the two major cell types in the nervous system?
Neurons and glial cells.
What is the function of neurons?
Generate electrical signals called action potentials.
What is the role of glial cells?
Support neurons without generating nerve impulses.
What does the somatic PNS control?
Motor and sensory processes for voluntary behaviors.
What are the divisions of the autonomic nervous system?
Parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions.
What is the goal of the nervous system?
Receive, create, and send electrical signals to regulate behavior.
What are the main parts of a neuron?
Cell body, dendrites, axon, axon hillock, axon terminal
What does the cell body (soma) contain?
Nucleus and ribosomes
What is the function of dendrites?
Receive information through neurotransmitters
What does the axon do?
Carries outgoing signals to target cells
What is the axon hillock?
Portion of axon that generates action potentials
What is the function of the axon terminal?
Releases neurotransmitters
What are the three main types of neurons?
Afferent, efferent, interneurons
What is the role of afferent neurons?
Brings information into the CNS
What do efferent neurons do?
Transmit information out of the CNS to effector cells
What is the function of interneurons?
Integrate afferent and efferent neurons
What is the resting membrane potential?
Stable negative potential at -70 mV
What establishes the resting membrane potential?
Concentration gradients and ion pumps
What is the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz equation?
Describes resting membrane potential accounting for monovalent ions
What happens when the membrane becomes permeable to an ion?
The ion moves down its electrochemical gradient
What is the Nernst potential?
The equilibrium potential for a specific ion
What is the role of the ATPase pump?
Transports ions back to original locations after action potential
What happens to an ion in a permeable membrane?
The ion moves down its electrochemical gradient.
What does the movement of an ion change?
It changes the membrane potential closer to that ion’s Nernst potential.
What is the Nernst potential for K+?
Ek=-95 mV
What is the Nernst potential for Cl-?
Ecl=-45 mV
What is depolarization?
Movement from resting membrane potential to a more positive voltage.
What is repolarization?
Returning to resting membrane potential from a depolarized state.
What is hyperpolarization?
Membrane voltage becomes more negative than resting membrane potential.
What are graded potentials?
Changes in membrane potential confined to a small region.
Why are they called graded potentials?
The magnitude of the potential change can vary.
What is summation in graded potentials?
Addition of graded potentials from several stimuli before they die out.
What influences graded potentials?
Membrane resistance, capacitance, and internal resistance.
What is the goal of the nervous system?
To receive, create, and send electrical signals to cause and regulate behavior.
What are the learning objectives in neurophysiology?
Know components of the nervous system and understand resting membrane potential changes.
How do neurons control their excitability?
Through graded potentials.
What is the mechanism of action potential propagation?
It involves membrane potential and ion diffusion.
What types of transmission are studied in synaptic transmission?
Types and mechanisms of synaptic transmission.
What does internal resistance refer to?
Ease of current flow through the cell.
What does membrane capacitance store?
Charge, slowing the speed of membrane potential change.
What is the goal of the nervous system?
To use cells to receive, create, and send electrical signals to cause and regulate behavior.
What are the two major divisions of the nervous system?
Central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS).
What does the CNS consist of?
The brain and spinal cord.
What does the PNS consist of?
Nerves connecting the brain or spinal cord with muscles, glands, and sense organs.
What are the two major cell types in the nervous system?
Neurons and glial cells.
What is a neuron?
The functional unit of the nervous system that generates electrical signals called action potentials.
What are glial cells?
Non-neuronal cells that support neurons but do not generate nerve impulses.
What is the role of the somatic nervous system?
Motor and sensory processes for voluntary behaviors.
What do afferent neurons do?
Bring information into the CNS from peripheral receptors.
What do efferent neurons do?
Transmit information out of the CNS to effector cells.
What is the function of interneurons?
Integrate groups of afferent and efferent neurons into reflex circuits.
What is the resting membrane potential?
The stable negative charge difference across a neuron's membrane at rest.
What are the parts of a neuron?
Cell body, dendrites, axon, initial segment/axon hillock, axon terminal.
What is the axon's function?
Carries outgoing signals to target cells.
What do dendrites do?
Receive information, typically through neurotransmitters.
What is the axon terminal?
The end of each branch that releases neurotransmitters.
What establishes a concentration gradient?
Ion pump
What creates a charge difference in the membrane?
Greater efflux of ions
What is the stable negative resting potential value?
−70 mV
What balances small influx of ions?
Efflux of ions through Leak Channels
What transports ions back to their original locations?
ATPase Pump
What happens during action potential?
Pump returns ions after depolarization and repolarization
What does the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz Equation describe?
Resting membrane potential accounting for monovalent ions
What is the simplified concept of membrane potential?
Weighted sum of the Nernst potentials of permeable ions
What happens when the membrane becomes permeable to an ion?
Ion moves down its EC gradient
What does depolarization refer to?
Membrane voltage moving to more positive towards zero
What does repolarization refer to?
Membrane voltage returning to resting membrane potential
What does hyperpolarization refer to?
Membrane voltage becoming more negative than resting membrane potential
What are graded potentials?
Changes in membrane potential confined to a small region
What is summation in graded potentials?
Addition of graded potentials from several stimuli
What influences graded potentials?
Membrane resistance, capacitance, and internal resistance
What does the Na/K pump achieve?
Homeostasis in cells
What is the function of the Na/K pump?
Maintains homeostasis in cells using energy.
What is the desired charge state for the membrane?
Net negative charge.
What are GLUT transporters?
Glucose transporters expressed in various tissues.
What does Vmax refer to?
Maximum rate of reaction for GLUT transporters.
What happens to Km if GLUT2 has a mutation changing its Vmax to GLUT4's?
Km changes based on affinity.
What does GLUT3 transport?
Transports 2-deoxy-glucose with lower affinity than GLUT3.
What changes if GLUT4 operates like a glucose channel?
The line shape changes as a function of [glucose].
What are the main components of the nervous system?
Central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS).
What does the CNS consist of?
Brain and spinal cord.
What does the PNS consist of?
Nerves connecting CNS to muscles, glands, and sense organs.
What are the two major cell types in the nervous system?
Neurons and glial cells.
What is the role of neurons?
Generate electrical signals called action potentials.
What is the role of glial cells?
Support neurons without generating impulses.
What is the cell body of a neuron?
Contains nucleus and ribosomes.
What do dendrites do?
Receive information through neurotransmitters.
What is the function of the axon?
Carries outgoing signals to target cells.
What is the axon hillock?
Portion of axon that generates action potentials.
What do axon terminals release?
Neurotransmitters.
What do afferent neurons do?
Bring information into the CNS from receptors.
What are afferent neurons?
Neurons that bring in information to the CNS from receptors.
How do afferent neurons transmit information?
Through a long peripheral axon in the PNS and a short central axon entering the CNS.
What are efferent neurons?
Neurons that carry out commands from the CNS to effector cells.
Where is the cell body of efferent neurons located?
In the CNS, with most of the axon in the PNS.
What are interneurons?
Neurons that act as integrators and signal changers between afferent and efferent neurons.
Where do interneurons lie?
Entirely within the CNS.
What is the primary function of a neuron?
To take itself from a resting state, fire an electrical impulse, and communicate with the next neuron.
What is the resting membrane potential?
The stable negative potential of a neuron, typically around -70 mV.
What establishes the resting membrane potential?
Concentration gradients generated by ion pumps.
What happens during depolarization?
The membrane voltage moves from resting potential to a more positive value.
What is repolarization?
The return of membrane voltage to resting potential from a depolarized state.
What does hyperpolarization refer to?
An increase in membrane potential, making it more negative than resting potential.
What is the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz Equation used for?
It quantitatively describes the resting membrane potential accounting for monovalent ions.
What is the Nernst potential?
The equilibrium potential for a specific ion across a membrane.
What occurs when a membrane becomes permeable to an ion?
The ion moves down its electrochemical gradient, affecting the membrane potential.
What does depolarization refer to?
Membrane voltage moving from RMP to more positive towards zero.
What does repolarization refer to?
Membrane voltage returning to RMP from a depolarized state.
What does hyperpolarization refer to?
Membrane voltage becoming more negative than RMP.
What are graded potentials?
Changes in membrane potential confined to a small region of the plasma membrane.
Why are they called graded potentials?
The magnitude of the potential change can vary (is 'graded').
What is summation in graded potentials?
Addition of graded potentials from several stimuli occurring in rapid succession.
What influences graded potentials?
Membrane resistance, capacitance, and internal resistance.
What is the goal of the nervous system?
To receive, create, and send electrical signals to cause and regulate behavior.
What are the two major divisions of the nervous system?
Central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS).
What composes the central nervous system (CNS)?
The brain and spinal cord.
What is the peripheral nervous system (PNS)?
Nerves that connect the brain or spinal cord with the body's muscles, glands, and sense organs.
What are the two major cell types in the nervous system?
Neurons and glial cells.
What is the function of neurons?
Generate electrical signals called action potentials or nerve impulses.
What do glial cells do?
Support neurons but do not generate nerve impulses.
What is the Central Nervous System (CNS)?
The brain and spinal cord.
What does the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) include?
Somatic and autonomic divisions.
What is the role of the Somatic PNS?
Motor and sensory processes for voluntary behaviors.
What do neurons do?
Transmit electrical impulses and communicate with other neurons.
What is a neuron composed of?
Cell body, dendrites, axon, axon hillock, axon terminal.
What is the function of dendrites?
Receive information through neurotransmitters.
What does the axon do?
Carries outgoing signals to target cells.
What is the axon hillock?
The part of the axon that generates action potentials.
What do axon terminals do?
Release neurotransmitters.
What are afferent neurons?
Bring information into the CNS from receptors.
What are efferent neurons?
Transmit information out of the CNS to effector cells.
What are interneurons?
Integrators and signal changers within the CNS.
What is the resting membrane potential?
Stable negative potential of -70 mV in neurons.
How is the resting membrane potential established?
Through ion pumps creating concentration gradients.
What happens during an action potential?
Ions are transported back to original locations after depolarization and repolarization.
What does the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz Equation describe?
Resting membrane potential accounting for monovalent ions.
What does the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz Equation describe?
Resting membrane potential accounting for monovalent ions.
What happens when the membrane becomes permeable to an ion?
The ion moves down its electrochemical gradient to change the membrane potential.
What is the membrane potential a weighted sum of?
The Nernst potentials of the permeable ions.
What does depolarization refer to?
Membrane voltage moving from resting membrane potential to more positive towards zero.
What does repolarization refer to?
Membrane voltage returning to resting membrane potential from a depolarized state.
What does hyperpolarization refer to?
Membrane voltage becoming more negative than resting membrane potential.
What are graded potentials?
Changes in membrane potential confined to a small region of the plasma membrane.
What is summation in graded potentials?
Addition of graded potentials from several stimuli occurring in rapid succession.
What influences graded potentials?
Membrane resistance, membrane capacitance, internal resistance.
What is the Y axis label in a glucose transporter graph?
It could represent the rate of glucose transport or concentration.
Which GLUT has the highest Vmax?
GLUT4 has the highest Vmax in specific tissues.
What happens to the Km of GLUT2 with a mutation changing its Vmax?
The Km may change to match that of GLUT4.
How does GLUT3 transport 2-deoxy-glucose?
With a lower affinity than GLUT3, affecting the curve shape.
What is the shape of the GLUT4 curve if it operates like a glucose channel?
The curve would be linear as a function of glucose concentration.
What are the main components of the nervous system?
Neurons and glial cells.
How does the resting membrane potential arise?
Through ion diffusion and membrane permeability.
How do neurons control their excitability?
Through graded potentials.
What is the role of ion diffusion in membrane potential?
It influences the changes in membrane potential.
What is the goal of the nervous system?
To receive, create, and send electrical signals to regulate behavior.
What are the two major divisions of the nervous system?
Central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS).
What does the CNS consist of?
The brain and spinal cord.
What does the PNS consist of?
Nerves connecting the CNS with muscles, glands, and sense organs.
What are the two major types of cells in the nervous system?
Neurons and glial cells.
What is the function of a neuron?
Generates electrical signals called action potentials.
What is the role of glial cells?
Support neurons but do not generate nerve impulses.
What is the structure of a neuron?
Cell body (soma), dendrites, axon, axon hillock, axon terminal.
What does the axon do?
Carries outgoing signals to target cells.
What is the initial segment of a neuron?
Portion of axon that generates action potentials.
What are afferent neurons?
Bring information into the CNS from receptors.
What are efferent neurons?
Transmit information out of the CNS to effector cells.
What are interneurons?
Integrators and signal changers within the CNS.
What do neurons do when they receive information?
They produce their own electrical activity.
What is the resting state of a neuron?
The state before it fires an electrical impulse.
What is the resting membrane potential value?
−70 mV
What establishes concentration gradients?
Ion pump
What is the effect of greater efflux on resting potential?
Creates charge difference
What balances small influx of ions?
Efflux of ions through Leak Channels
What does the ATPase Pump do?
Transports ions back to original locations
What is the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz Equation?
Quantitative description of resting membrane potential
What is the mantra for membrane potential?
Weighted sum of the Nernst potentials of permeable ions
What happens when the membrane becomes permeable to an ion?
Ion moves down its EC gradient
What does depolarization refer to?
Membrane voltage moving from RMP to more positive
What does repolarization refer to?
Membrane voltage returning to RMP from depolarized state
What does hyperpolarization refer to?
Membrane voltage becoming more negative than RMP
What are graded potentials?
Changes in membrane potential confined to a small region
What does summation refer to in graded potentials?
Addition of graded potentials from several stimuli
What can aid in reaching the threshold potential?
Summation of several small potentials
What are the passive membrane properties that influence graded potentials?
Membrane resistance, membrane capacitance, internal resistance
What does membrane resistance refer to?
Leakiness, V=IR
What is membrane capacitance?
Ability to store charge, slows change in membrane potential
What does internal resistance indicate?
Ease of current flow through cell
What is the goal of the nervous system?
Receive, create, and send electrical signals
What are the two major divisions of the nervous system?
Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
What does the CNS consist of?
Brain and spinal cord
What does the PNS consist of?
Nerves connecting CNS with muscles, glands, and sense organs
What are the two major cell types in the nervous system?
Neurons and glial cells
What is the function of neurons?
Generate electrical signals called action potentials
What is the role of glial cells?
Support neurons but do not generate nerve impulses
What processes does the somatic PNS control?
Motor and sensory processes for voluntary behaviors
What are the parts of a neuron?
Cell body, dendrites, axon, initial segment/axon hillock
What does the cell body of a neuron contain?
Nucleus and ribosomes
What is the function of dendrites?
Receive information through neurotransmitters
What does the axon do?
Carries outgoing signals to target cells
What is the initial segment/axon hillock?
Portion of axon that generates action potentials
What does an axon do?
Carries outgoing signals to target cells
What is the axon hillock?
Portion of axon that arises from cell body
What does the initial segment of an axon do?
Generates action potentials
What is the axon terminal?
End of each branch; releases neurotransmitters
What are afferent neurons?
Brings in information to the CNS
How do afferent neurons transmit information?
From receptors at their peripheral endings to the CNS
What characterizes efferent neurons?
Carries out commands from the CNS
What is the role of interneurons?
Integrators and signal changers between afferent and efferent neurons
What is the resting state of a neuron?
A state where the neuron is not firing an impulse
What is the resting membrane potential?
Stable negative resting potential at -70 mV
What establishes the resting membrane potential?
Concentration gradients and ion movement
What is the function of the ATPase pump?
Transports ions back to original locations after action potential
What does the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz equation describe?
Quantitative description of the resting membrane potential
What happens when the membrane becomes permeable to an ion?
The ion moves down its electrochemical gradient
What is the Nernst potential?
The equilibrium potential for a specific ion
What changes occur during action potentials?
Depolarizing, overshoot, repolarizing, and hyperpolarizing changes
What is depolarization?
Membrane voltage moving from resting membrane potential (RMP) to more positive towards zero.
What is repolarization?
Membrane voltage returning to resting membrane potential (RMP) from a depolarized state.
What is hyperpolarization?
Membrane voltage becoming more negative than resting membrane potential (RMP).
What are graded potentials?
Changes in membrane potential confined to a small region of the plasma membrane.
Why are they called graded potentials?
Because the magnitude of the potential change can vary.
What is summation in graded potentials?
Addition of graded potentials from several stimuli occurring in rapid succession.
What influences graded potentials?
Membrane resistance, capacitance, and internal resistance.
What does membrane resistance refer to?
The leakiness of the membrane.
What does membrane capacitance refer to?
The ability to store charge, affecting the speed of potential change.
What is the goal of the nervous system?
Use cells to receive, create, and send electrical signals to regulate behavior.
What are the main components of the nervous system?
Neurons and glial cells.
What does the resting membrane potential arise from?
Ion distribution across the membrane and permeability.
What is the significance of action potentials?
They propagate signals along neurons.
What are the mechanisms of synaptic transmission?
Release of neurotransmitters and receptor binding.
What happens to Km of GLUT2 with a mutation?
It changes to that observed in GLUT4.
What would the GLUT3 curve look like with lower affinity?
It would shift to the right compared to GLUT3.
What happens if GLUT4 operates like a glucose channel?
The line shape would be linear as a function of [glucose].
What causes and regulates behavior?
The nervous system.
What are the two major divisions of the nervous system?
Central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS).
What does the central nervous system (CNS) consist of?
The brain and spinal cord.
What does the peripheral nervous system (PNS) consist of?
Nerves connecting the CNS with muscles, glands, and sense organs.
What are the two major types of cells in the nervous system?
Neurons and glial cells.
What is the function of neurons?
Generate electrical signals called action potentials.
What do glial cells do?
Support neurons but do not generate nerve impulses.
What is the role of the somatic nervous system?
Motor and sensory processes for voluntary behaviors.
What are the parts of a neuron?
Cell body, dendrites, axon, axon hillock, axon terminal.
What does the cell body (soma) contain?
Nucleus and ribosomes.
What is the function of dendrites?
Receive information through neurotransmitters.
What does the axon do?
Carries outgoing signals to target cells.
What is the initial segment of the axon?
Portion that generates action potentials.
What happens at the axon terminal?
Releases neurotransmitters.
What are afferent neurons?
Bring information into the CNS from receptors.
What are efferent neurons?
Transmit information out of the CNS to effector cells.
What are interneurons?
Integrators and signal changers within the CNS.
What is the resting state of a neuron?
A stable negative resting membrane potential.
What establishes the resting membrane potential?
Concentration gradient by ion pump.
What creates a charge difference in the resting membrane potential?
Greater efflux of ions.
What is the resting potential value?
−70 mV
What establishes concentration gradients for resting potential?
Leak Channels and ATPase Pump
What happens during depolarization?
Membrane voltage moves towards zero
What happens during repolarization?
Membrane voltage returns to resting potential
What happens during hyperpolarization?
Membrane voltage becomes more negative than resting potential
What are graded potentials?
Changes in membrane potential confined to a small region
What is summation in graded potentials?
Addition of graded potentials from several stimuli
What is the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz Equation used for?
Quantitative description of resting membrane potential
What is the effect of permeability on membrane potential?
No permeability, no contribution to membrane potential
What does the Nernst potential refer to?
Equilibrium potential for specific ions
What influences graded potentials?
Membrane resistance, capacitance, and internal resistance
What is the significance of the ATPase Pump?
Transports ions back to original locations after action potentials
What is the role of Leak Channels?
Balance small influx and efflux of ions
What does a K+ channel's Nernst potential indicate?
Ek=-95 mV
What does a Cl- channel's Nernst potential indicate?
Ecl=-45 mV
What are glucose transporters expressed in?
Various tissues of the body
What could the Y axis label be?
Not specified
Which tissues have the highest Vmax for GLUT?
Not specified
Which GLUT has the lowest affinity?
Not specified
What happens to Km of GLUT2 with a mutation?
Changes to GLUT4 Vmax
How does GLUT3 transport 2-deoxy-glucose?
With lower affinity than GLUT3
What would the curve look like for GLUT3?
Not specified
What happens to GLUT4 in the new planet scenario?
Operates like a glucose channel
What is the goal of the nervous system?
Receive, create, and send electrical signals
What are the two major divisions of the nervous system?
CNS and PNS
What composes the CNS?
Brain and spinal cord
What does the PNS consist of?
Nerves connecting CNS with body
What are the two major cell types in the nervous system?
Neurons and glial cells
What is the functional unit of the nervous system?
Neuron
What do glial cells do?
Support neurons
What are the parts of a neuron?
Cell body, dendrites, axon, axon hillock, axon terminal
What do afferent neurons do?
Bring in information to CNS
What do efferent neurons do?
Carry out commands from CNS
What is the role of efferent neurons?
Carries out commands from the CNS to effector cells.
Where are the cell bodies of efferent neurons located?
In the CNS with multiple dendrites.
What do interneurons do?
Integrate groups of afferent and efferent neurons into reflex circuits.
Where are interneurons located?
Entirely within the CNS.
What is the resting state of a neuron?
The state before firing an electrical impulse.
What is the resting membrane potential?
Typically around -70 mV.
What establishes the resting membrane potential?
Concentration gradients and ion movement.
What happens during depolarization?
Membrane voltage moves from resting potential to more positive.
What is repolarization?
Membrane voltage returning to resting potential from depolarized state.
What is hyperpolarization?
Membrane voltage becoming more negative than resting potential.
What do graded potentials represent?
Changes in membrane potential confined to a small region.
What is the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz Equation?
A quantitative description of resting membrane potential accounting for monovalent ions.
What is the Nernst potential?
The equilibrium potential for a specific ion.
What is the role of the ATPase pump?
Transports ions back to their original locations after action potentials.
What are graded potentials?
Changes in membrane potential confined to a small region of the plasma membrane.
Why are they called graded potentials?
Because the magnitude of the potential change can vary.
What is summation in graded potentials?
Addition of graded potentials from several stimuli occurring in rapid succession.
What does summation aid in?
Integration and reaching the threshold potential for an action potential.
What influences graded potentials?
Membrane resistance, capacitance, and internal resistance.
What is membrane resistance?
The leakiness of the membrane, described by V=IR.
What is membrane capacitance?
Proportional to the amount of membrane ability to store charge.
What is internal resistance?
Ease of current flow through the cell.
What are the main components of the nervous system?
Central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS).
What does the CNS consist of?
The brain and spinal cord.
What does the PNS consist of?
Nerves connecting the brain or spinal cord with muscles, glands, and sense organs.
What are the two major cell types in the nervous system?
Neurons and glial cells.
What is the function of neurons?
Generate electrical signals called action potentials or nerve impulses.
What is the role of glial cells?
Support neurons but do not generate nerve impulses.
What does the somatic nervous system control?
Motor and sensory processes for voluntary behaviors.
What is the goal of the nervous system?
To use cells to receive, create, and send electrical signals to regulate behavior.
What are the functions regulated by the nervous system?
Behavior, movement, autonomic functions, thought.
What processes does the somatic system control?
Motor and sensory processes for voluntary behaviors.
What is the function of afferent neurons?
Brings in information to the CNS from receptors.
What do efferent neurons do?
Carries out commands from the CNS to effector cells.
What is the role of interneurons?
Integrate afferent and efferent neurons into reflex circuits.
What is the structure of a neuron?
Includes cell body, dendrites, axon, axon hillock, and axon terminal.
What does the cell body (soma) contain?
Nucleus and ribosomes.
What is the function of dendrites?
Receive information through neurotransmitters.
What does the axon do?
Carries outgoing signals to target cells.
What generates action potentials in a neuron?
Initial segment/Axon hillock.
What is the function of the axon terminal?
Releases neurotransmitters.
What is the resting membrane potential?
Stable negative potential at -70 mV.
What establishes the resting membrane potential?
Concentration gradients and ion pumps.
What does the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz equation describe?
Resting membrane potential accounting for monovalent ions.
What happens when the membrane becomes permeable?
The membrane potential is weighted sum of the Nernst potentials of permeable ions.
What is the membrane potential?
Weighted sum of the Nernst potentials of permeable ions.
What happens with no permeability?
No contribution to the membrane potential.
What occurs when the membrane becomes permeable to an ion?
Ion moves down its EC gradient to change membrane potential.
What is Ek for K+?
Ek = -95 mV
What is Ecl for Cl-?
Ecl = -45 mV
What is depolarization?
Membrane voltage moving from resting potential to more positive.
What is repolarization?
Membrane voltage returning to resting potential from a depolarized state.
What is hyperpolarization?
Membrane voltage becoming more negative than resting potential.
What are graded potentials?
Changes in membrane potential confined to a small region.
What does summation refer to in graded potentials?
Addition of graded potentials from several stimuli before they die out.
What influences graded potentials?
Membrane resistance, capacitance, and internal resistance.
What is the role of membrane resistance?
Influences the change in membrane potential (V=IR).
What does membrane capacitance do?
Stores charge and slows the speed of potential change.
What are the main components of the nervous system?
Neurons and glial cells.
What is the resting membrane potential?
The baseline voltage across a membrane when a neuron is not firing.
What is an action potential?
A rapid rise and fall in membrane potential.
What is synaptic transmission?
The process by which neurons communicate with each other.
What is the goal of the nervous system?
To use cells to receive, create, and send electrical signals to cause and regulate behavior.
What are the two major divisions of the nervous system?
Central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS).
What does the central nervous system (CNS) consist of?
The brain and spinal cord.
What does the peripheral nervous system (PNS) consist of?
Nerves that connect the brain or spinal cord with muscles, glands, sense organs, and other tissues.
What are the two major cell types in the nervous system?
Neurons and glial cells.
What is the function of a neuron?
Generates electrical signals called action potentials or nerve impulses.
What is the function of glial cells?
Support neurons but do not generate nerve impulses.
What processes does the somatic PNS control?
Motor and sensory processes for voluntary behaviors.
What are the parts of a neuron?
Cell body (soma), dendrites, axon, initial segment/axon hillock, axon terminal.
What is the role of dendrites in a neuron?
Receive information, typically through neurotransmitters.
What is the function of the axon?
Carries outgoing signals to target cells.
What generates action potentials in a neuron?
Initial segment/axon hillock.
What do axon terminals release?
Neurotransmitters.
What are afferent neurons responsible for?
Bringing information into the CNS from receptors.
What do efferent neurons do?
Carry out commands from the CNS to effector cells.
What is the function of interneurons?
Integrate groups of afferent and efferent neurons into reflex circuits.
What does a neuron do to transmit signals?
Takes itself from a resting state, fires an electrical impulse, and tells the next neuron to do the same.
What is the resting membrane potential?
The electrical potential across the membrane of a neuron at rest.
What is the resting membrane potential value?
−70 mV
What establishes the concentration gradients in membrane potential?
Ion pump
What does greater net movement of ions affect?
Closer to Nernst potential of K+
What balances small influx of ions?
Efflux of ions through Leak Channels
What does ATPase Pump do?
Transports ions back to original locations
What happens during action potential?
Pump returns ions to original locations after depolarization and repolarization
What is the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz Equation?
Quantitative description of resting membrane potential
What is the mantra for membrane potential?
Weighted sum of the Nernst potentials of permeable ions
What occurs when the membrane becomes permeable to an ion?
Ion moves down its EC gradient
What does depolarization refer to?
Membrane voltage moving from RMP to more positive
What does repolarization refer to?
Membrane voltage returning to RMP from depolarized state
What does hyperpolarization refer to?
Membrane voltage becoming more negative than RMP
What are graded potentials?
Changes in membrane potential confined to a small region
What is summation in graded potentials?
Addition of graded potentials from several stimuli
What influences graded potentials?
Membrane resistance, capacitance, and internal resistance
What does membrane resistance relate to?
Leakiness, V=IR
What does membrane capacitance indicate?
Ability to store charge
What is internal resistance?
Ease of current flow through cell
What is the ability to store charge in a cell?
Membrane capacitance
What does internal resistance refer to in a cell?
Ease of current flow
What is the goal of the nervous system?
Receive, create, and send electrical signals
What are the two major divisions of the nervous system?
CNS and PNS
What composes the central nervous system (CNS)?
Brain and spinal cord
What does the peripheral nervous system (PNS) consist of?
Nerves connecting CNS to body
What are the two types of nervous system?
Somatic and autonomic
What is the resting membrane potential?
The electrical potential difference across the membrane
What happens to the Km of GLUT2 with a mutation changing its Vmax?
It changes to that of GLUT4
What does GLUT3 transport?
2-deoxy-glucose
What happens to GLUT4 if it operates like a glucose channel?
It no longer requires a binding step
What are the main components of the nervous system?
Central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS).
What is the structure of a neuron?
Includes cell body, dendrites, axon, axon hillock, and axon terminal.
What happens when the membrane becomes permeable to an ion?
The ion moves down its electrochemical gradient
What are graded potentials?
Changes in membrane potential confined to a small region of the plasma membrane.
What is summation in graded potentials?
The addition of graded potentials from several stimuli occurring in rapid succession.
What does summation aid in?
Integration and reaching the threshold potential for an action potential.
What influences graded potentials?
Passive membrane properties such as resistance, capacitance, and internal resistance.
What is membrane capacitance?
The ability of the membrane to store charge, affecting the speed of potential change.
What are the main components of the nervous system?
Central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS).
What is the function of neurons?
To generate electrical signals called action potentials or nerve impulses.
What is the goal of the nervous system?
To receive, create, and send electrical signals to regulate behavior.
What are the parts of a neuron?
Cell body, Dendrites, Axon, Initial segment/Axon hillock, Axon terminal
What does the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz Equation describe?
Resting membrane potential accounting for monovalent ions
What happens when the membrane becomes permeable to an ion?
The ion moves down its electrochemical gradient
What occurs when the membrane becomes permeable to an ion?
The ion moves down its electrochemical gradient.
What does summation refer to in graded potentials?
Addition of graded potentials from several stimuli.
What are the learning objectives in neurophysiology?
Components of nervous system, resting membrane potential, graded potentials, action potential, synaptic transmission.
What is the goal of the nervous system?
To receive, create, and send electrical signals to cause and regulate behavior
What are the two major divisions of the nervous system?
Central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS)
What does the PNS consist of?
Nerves connecting the brain or spinal cord with muscles, glands, and sense organs
What are the parts of a neuron?
Cell body, dendrites, axon, initial segment/axon hillock, axon terminal
What is the resting membrane potential?
The electrical potential difference across the neuron's membrane at rest
What does the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz Equation describe?
Resting membrane potential accounting for monovalent ions
What is the key concept about membrane potential?
Weighted sum of the Nernst potentials of permeable ions
What happens when the membrane becomes permeable to an ion?
Ion moves down its electrochemical gradient
What does summation refer to in graded potentials?
Addition of graded potentials from several stimuli
What happens if GLUT4 operates like a glucose channel?
Line shape changes as a function of [glucose]
What is the structure of afferent neurons?
Single process splits into a long peripheral axon and a short central axon.
What is the structure of efferent neurons?
Cell body with multiple dendrites in CNS; most axon in PNS.
What happens during repolarization?
Membrane voltage returns to resting potential from depolarized state.
What is the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz Equation?
Quantitative description of resting membrane potential accounting for ions.
What is the role of the ATPase Pump?
Transports ions back to original locations after action potential events.
What is the effect of ion permeability on membrane potential?
Membrane potential changes based on ion permeability to specific ions.
What is repolarization?
Return of membrane voltage to resting membrane potential (RMP) from depolarized state.
What is hyperpolarization?
Membrane voltage becomes more negative than resting membrane potential (RMP).
What are graded potentials?
Changes in membrane potential confined to a small region of the plasma membrane.
What is summation in graded potentials?
Addition of graded potentials from several stimuli occurring in rapid succession.
What is the goal of the nervous system?
Use cells to receive, create, and send electrical signals to regulate behavior.
What are the two major divisions of the nervous system?
Central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS).
What does the peripheral nervous system (PNS) consist of?
Nerves connecting the brain or spinal cord with body muscles, glands, and sense organs.
What is the function of neurons?
Generate electrical signals called action potentials or nerve impulses.
What does the autonomic nervous system control?
Involuntary functions like heart rate and digestion.
What is the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)?
Includes somatic motor and sensory processes for voluntary behaviors.
What are the main parts of a neuron?
Cell body, dendrites, axon, initial segment/axon hillock, axon terminal.
What happens during an action potential?
Ions are returned to original locations after depolarization and repolarization.
What is the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz Equation?
Describes resting membrane potential accounting for monovalent ions.
What is the mantra for membrane potential?
The membrane potential is a weighted sum of the Nernst potentials of the permeable ions
What occurs when the membrane becomes permeable to an ion?
The ion moves down its electrochemical gradient
What does depolarization refer to?
Membrane voltage moving from resting membrane potential to more positive
What does repolarization refer to?
Membrane voltage returning to resting membrane potential from a depolarized state
What does hyperpolarization refer to?
Membrane voltage becoming more negative than resting membrane potential
What does summation refer to in graded potentials?
Addition of graded potentials from several stimuli before they die out
What is the focus of neurophysiology learning objectives?
Components of the nervous system and membrane potential changes
What is the relationship between ion diffusion and action potentials?
Ion diffusion relates to the mechanism of action potential and propagation
What does the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz Equation describe?
Resting membrane potential accounting for monovalent ions
What is the weighted sum of the Nernst potentials?
Membrane potential is weighted sum of permeable ions' Nernst potentials
What happens when the membrane becomes permeable to an ion?
Ion moves down its electrochemical gradient
What does hyperpolarization refer to?
Membrane voltage becoming more negative than resting potential
What are passive membrane properties that influence graded potentials?
Membrane resistance, membrane capacitance, internal resistance
What is the goal of the nervous system?
To receive, create, and send electrical signals to regulate behavior
What are the two major divisions of the nervous system?
Central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS)
What does the peripheral nervous system (PNS) consist of?
Nerves connecting CNS to muscles, glands, and sense organs
What is the initial segment of the axon?
Portion of axon beyond the hilock; generates action potentials and may branch into collaterals.
What do afferent neurons do?
Bring in information; transmit information into the CNS from peripheral receptors.
How do afferent neurons transmit information?
Single process splits into a long peripheral process in the PNS and a short central process entering the CNS.
What do efferent neurons do?
Carry out commands; transmit information out of the CNS to effector cells.
Where are the cell bodies of efferent neurons located?
Cell body with multiple dendrites and a small segment of the axon are in the CNS; most of the axon is in the PNS.
What is the role of interneurons?
Function as integrators and signal changers; integrate groups of afferent and efferent neurons into reflex circuits.
What is the neuron's job?
Take itself from a resting state, fire an electrical impulse, and tell the next neuron to do the same.
What establishes the resting membrane potential?
Concentration gradients and small negative potential.
What is the role of the ATPase pump?
Transports ions back to their original locations after action potentials.
What does the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz equation describe?
Quantitative description of the resting membrane potential accounting for monovalent ions.
What happens when the membrane becomes permeable to an ion?
The ion moves down its electrochemical gradient to change the membrane potential closer to that ion’s Nernst potential.
What are the terms used for changes in membrane potential?
Terms describe the direction of changes in membrane potential relative to the resting membrane potential.
What does depolarization refer to?
Membrane voltage moving from resting membrane potential to more positive towards zero.
What does repolarization refer to?
Membrane voltage returning to resting membrane potential from a depolarized state.
What does hyperpolarization refer to?
Membrane voltage becoming more negative than resting membrane potential.
What are graded potentials?
Changes in membrane potential confined to a small region of the plasma membrane.
What is summation in graded potentials?
Addition of graded potentials from several stimuli occurring in rapid succession.
What is the goal of the nervous system?
To use cells to receive, create, and send electrical signals to regulate behavior.
What are the two major divisions of the nervous system?
Central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS).
What does the PNS consist of?
Nerves connecting the brain or spinal cord with muscles, glands, and sense organs.
What is the function of the somatic nervous system?
Motor and sensory processes for voluntary behaviors
What does the pump do during an action potential?
Returns ions to their original locations after depolarization and repolarization.
What does the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz Equation describe?
The resting membrane potential accounting for monovalent ions.
What is the mantra for membrane potential?
The membrane potential is a weighted sum of the Nernst potentials of the permeable ions.
What happens when the membrane becomes permeable to an ion?
The ion moves down its electrochemical gradient to change the membrane potential.
What is depolarization?
Membrane voltage moving from resting membrane potential to more positive towards zero.
What is repolarization?
Membrane voltage returning to resting membrane potential from a depolarized state.
What are graded potentials?
Changes in membrane potential confined to a small region of the plasma membrane.
What is summation in graded potentials?
Addition of graded potentials from several stimuli occurring in rapid succession.
What are the main components of the nervous system?
Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
What is the goal of the nervous system?
Receive, create, and send electrical signals to regulate behavior
What is the job of a neuron?
To take itself from a resting state, fire an electrical impulse, and tell the next neuron to do the same.
What establishes the resting membrane potential?
Concentration gradients and ion pumps generate a small negative potential.
What is the effect of K+ ions on resting membrane potential?
Greater net movement of K+ makes the resting potential closer to the Nernst potential of K+.
What does the ATPase Pump do?
Transports ions back to their original locations after action potential.
What is the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz Equation?
A quantitative description of the resting membrane potential accounting for monovalent ions.
What happens when the membrane becomes permeable to an ion?
The ion moves down its electrochemical gradient, changing the membrane potential closer to that ion's Nernst potential.
What does depolarization refer to?
Membrane voltage moving from resting membrane potential to more positive towards zero.
What does repolarization refer to?
Membrane voltage returning to resting membrane potential from a depolarized state.
What does hyperpolarization refer to?
Membrane voltage becoming more negative than resting membrane potential.
What are graded potentials?
Changes in membrane potential confined to a small region of the plasma membrane.
What is summation in neurons?
Addition of graded potentials from several stimuli occurring in rapid succession.
What is the threshold potential?
The level of membrane potential that must be reached for an action potential to occur.
What influences graded potentials?
Passive membrane properties, including membrane resistance, capacitance, and internal resistance.
What does membrane resistance relate to?
It relates to the leakiness of the membrane, described by V=IR.
What is the goal of the nervous system?
To receive, create, and send electrical signals to regulate behavior.
What are the two major divisions of the nervous system?
Central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS).
What is the function of neurons?
To generate electrical signals called action potentials or nerve impulses.
What does the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz equation describe?
Resting membrane potential accounting for ions
What is depolarization?
Membrane voltage moving from resting membrane potential (RMP) to more positive towards zero.
What is repolarization?
Membrane voltage returning to the resting membrane potential from a depolarized state.
What is hyperpolarization?
Membrane voltage becoming more negative than the resting membrane potential.
What are graded potentials?
Changes in membrane potential confined to a small region of the plasma membrane.
What is summation in graded potentials?
Addition of graded potentials from several stimuli before each has died out.
What factors influence graded potentials?
Membrane resistance, membrane capacitance, internal resistance.
What is the goal of the nervous system?
To use cells to receive, create, and send electrical signals to cause and regulate behavior.
What are the two major divisions of the nervous system?
Central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS).
What does the peripheral nervous system consist of?
Nerves that connect the brain or spinal cord with the body.
What is the resting membrane potential?
The baseline voltage across the membrane of an excitable cell.
What is the mechanism of action potential propagation?
Involves changes in membrane potential and ion diffusion.
What is the peripheral nervous system (PNS)?
Nerves connecting the brain or spinal cord with the body's muscles, glands, and sense organs
What keeps the resting potential at −70 mV?
A small negative potential generates this resting potential.
What happens during action potential?
The pump returns ions after depolarization and repolarization.
What does the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz Equation describe?
Resting membrane potential accounting for monovalent ions.
What is the mantra for membrane potential?
The membrane potential is a weighted sum of the Nernst potentials of permeable ions.
What happens when the membrane becomes permeable to an ion?
The ion moves down its EC gradient to change the membrane potential.
What is repolarization?
Membrane voltage returning to resting membrane potential from a depolarized state.
What are graded potentials?
Changes in membrane potential confined to a small region of the plasma membrane.
What does summation refer to in graded potentials?
Addition of graded potentials from several stimuli occurring in rapid succession.
What does membrane resistance affect?
It influences the speed at which membrane potential can change.
What happens to Km of GLUT2 with a mutation changing its Vmax to GLUT4?
The Km may change, affecting glucose transport efficiency.
How does GLUT3 transport 2-deoxy-glucose?
GLUT3 has a lower affinity for 2-deoxy-glucose compared to glucose.
What is the shape of GLUT4 function as a glucose channel?
The curve would be linear as a function of [glucose].
What are the main components of the nervous system?
Central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS).
What does summation in graded potentials refer to?
Addition of graded potentials from several stimuli.
What is the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz Equation?
A quantitative description of resting membrane potential.
What is the effect of ion movement on membrane potential?
It changes the membrane potential closer to the ion's Nernst potential.
What is summation in graded potentials?
Addition of graded potentials from several stimuli before they die out.
What are the main components of the nervous system?
Central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS).
What is the goal of the nervous system?
Receive, create, and send electrical signals to regulate behavior.
What is the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz equation?
Describes resting membrane potential accounting for monovalent ions
What happens when the membrane becomes permeable to an ion?
The ion moves down its electrochemical gradient
What is the role of the ATPase pump?
Transports ions back to original locations after action potential
What does the movement of an ion change?
It changes the membrane potential closer to that ion’s Nernst potential.
What is summation in graded potentials?
Addition of graded potentials from several stimuli before they die out.
What is the goal of the nervous system?
To receive, create, and send electrical signals to cause and regulate behavior.
What are the learning objectives in neurophysiology?
Know components of the nervous system and understand resting membrane potential changes.
What is the mechanism of action potential propagation?
It involves membrane potential and ion diffusion.
What types of transmission are studied in synaptic transmission?
Types and mechanisms of synaptic transmission.
What is the goal of the nervous system?
To use cells to receive, create, and send electrical signals to cause and regulate behavior.
What are the two major divisions of the nervous system?
Central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS).
What does the PNS consist of?
Nerves connecting the brain or spinal cord with muscles, glands, and sense organs.
What is a neuron?
The functional unit of the nervous system that generates electrical signals called action potentials.
What is the role of the somatic nervous system?
Motor and sensory processes for voluntary behaviors.
What is the function of interneurons?
Integrate groups of afferent and efferent neurons into reflex circuits.
What is the resting membrane potential?
The stable negative charge difference across a neuron's membrane at rest.
What are the parts of a neuron?
Cell body, dendrites, axon, initial segment/axon hillock, axon terminal.
What does the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz Equation describe?
Resting membrane potential accounting for monovalent ions
What is the simplified concept of membrane potential?
Weighted sum of the Nernst potentials of permeable ions
What does hyperpolarization refer to?
Membrane voltage becoming more negative than resting membrane potential
What happens to Km if GLUT2 has a mutation changing its Vmax to GLUT4's?
Km changes based on affinity.
What changes if GLUT4 operates like a glucose channel?
The line shape changes as a function of [glucose].
What are the main components of the nervous system?
Central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS).
How do afferent neurons transmit information?
Through a long peripheral axon in the PNS and a short central axon entering the CNS.
What are interneurons?
Neurons that act as integrators and signal changers between afferent and efferent neurons.
What is the primary function of a neuron?
To take itself from a resting state, fire an electrical impulse, and communicate with the next neuron.
What is the resting membrane potential?
The stable negative potential of a neuron, typically around -70 mV.
What happens during depolarization?
The membrane voltage moves from resting potential to a more positive value.
What is repolarization?
The return of membrane voltage to resting potential from a depolarized state.
What does hyperpolarization refer to?
An increase in membrane potential, making it more negative than resting potential.
What is the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz Equation used for?
It quantitatively describes the resting membrane potential accounting for monovalent ions.
What occurs when a membrane becomes permeable to an ion?
The ion moves down its electrochemical gradient, affecting the membrane potential.
What are graded potentials?
Changes in membrane potential confined to a small region of the plasma membrane.
Why are they called graded potentials?
The magnitude of the potential change can vary (is 'graded').
What is summation in graded potentials?
Addition of graded potentials from several stimuli occurring in rapid succession.
What is the goal of the nervous system?
To receive, create, and send electrical signals to cause and regulate behavior.
What are the two major divisions of the nervous system?
Central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS).
What is the peripheral nervous system (PNS)?
Nerves that connect the brain or spinal cord with the body's muscles, glands, and sense organs.
What is the function of neurons?
Generate electrical signals called action potentials or nerve impulses.
How is the resting membrane potential established?
Through ion pumps creating concentration gradients.
What happens during an action potential?
Ions are transported back to original locations after depolarization and repolarization.
What does the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz Equation describe?
Resting membrane potential accounting for monovalent ions.
What does the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz Equation describe?
Resting membrane potential accounting for monovalent ions.
What happens when the membrane becomes permeable to an ion?
The ion moves down its electrochemical gradient to change the membrane potential.
What does depolarization refer to?
Membrane voltage moving from resting membrane potential to more positive towards zero.
What does repolarization refer to?
Membrane voltage returning to resting membrane potential from a depolarized state.
What does hyperpolarization refer to?
Membrane voltage becoming more negative than resting membrane potential.
What are graded potentials?
Changes in membrane potential confined to a small region of the plasma membrane.
What is summation in graded potentials?
Addition of graded potentials from several stimuli occurring in rapid succession.
What is the Y axis label in a glucose transporter graph?
It could represent the rate of glucose transport or concentration.
What happens to the Km of GLUT2 with a mutation changing its Vmax?
The Km may change to match that of GLUT4.
How does GLUT3 transport 2-deoxy-glucose?
With a lower affinity than GLUT3, affecting the curve shape.
What is the shape of the GLUT4 curve if it operates like a glucose channel?
The curve would be linear as a function of glucose concentration.
What is the role of ion diffusion in membrane potential?
It influences the changes in membrane potential.
What is the goal of the nervous system?
To receive, create, and send electrical signals to regulate behavior.
What are the two major divisions of the nervous system?
Central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS).
What does summation refer to in graded potentials?
Addition of graded potentials from several stimuli
What are the passive membrane properties that influence graded potentials?
Membrane resistance, membrane capacitance, internal resistance
What are the two major divisions of the nervous system?
Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
What is the role of interneurons?
Integrators and signal changers between afferent and efferent neurons
What is the function of the ATPase pump?
Transports ions back to original locations after action potential
What does the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz equation describe?
Quantitative description of the resting membrane potential
What happens when the membrane becomes permeable to an ion?
The ion moves down its electrochemical gradient
What changes occur during action potentials?
Depolarizing, overshoot, repolarizing, and hyperpolarizing changes
What is depolarization?
Membrane voltage moving from resting membrane potential (RMP) to more positive towards zero.
What is repolarization?
Membrane voltage returning to resting membrane potential (RMP) from a depolarized state.
What is hyperpolarization?
Membrane voltage becoming more negative than resting membrane potential (RMP).
What are graded potentials?
Changes in membrane potential confined to a small region of the plasma membrane.
What is summation in graded potentials?
Addition of graded potentials from several stimuli occurring in rapid succession.
What does membrane capacitance refer to?
The ability to store charge, affecting the speed of potential change.
What is the goal of the nervous system?
Use cells to receive, create, and send electrical signals to regulate behavior.
What does the resting membrane potential arise from?
Ion distribution across the membrane and permeability.
What are the mechanisms of synaptic transmission?
Release of neurotransmitters and receptor binding.
What would the GLUT3 curve look like with lower affinity?
It would shift to the right compared to GLUT3.
What happens if GLUT4 operates like a glucose channel?
The line shape would be linear as a function of [glucose].
What are the two major divisions of the nervous system?
Central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS).
What does the peripheral nervous system (PNS) consist of?
Nerves connecting the CNS with muscles, glands, and sense organs.
What is the role of the somatic nervous system?
Motor and sensory processes for voluntary behaviors.
What happens during hyperpolarization?
Membrane voltage becomes more negative than resting potential
What is the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz Equation used for?
Quantitative description of resting membrane potential
What is the effect of permeability on membrane potential?
No permeability, no contribution to membrane potential
What is the significance of the ATPase Pump?
Transports ions back to original locations after action potentials
What is the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz Equation?
A quantitative description of resting membrane potential accounting for monovalent ions.
What is the role of the ATPase pump?
Transports ions back to their original locations after action potentials.
What are graded potentials?
Changes in membrane potential confined to a small region of the plasma membrane.
What is summation in graded potentials?
Addition of graded potentials from several stimuli occurring in rapid succession.
What does summation aid in?
Integration and reaching the threshold potential for an action potential.
What are the main components of the nervous system?
Central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS).
What does the PNS consist of?
Nerves connecting the brain or spinal cord with muscles, glands, and sense organs.
What is the function of neurons?
Generate electrical signals called action potentials or nerve impulses.
What is the goal of the nervous system?
To use cells to receive, create, and send electrical signals to regulate behavior.
What are the functions regulated by the nervous system?
Behavior, movement, autonomic functions, thought.
What processes does the somatic system control?
Motor and sensory processes for voluntary behaviors.
What is the structure of a neuron?
Includes cell body, dendrites, axon, axon hillock, and axon terminal.
What does the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz equation describe?
Resting membrane potential accounting for monovalent ions.
What happens when the membrane becomes permeable?
The membrane potential is weighted sum of the Nernst potentials of permeable ions.
What occurs when the membrane becomes permeable to an ion?
Ion moves down its EC gradient to change membrane potential.
What does summation refer to in graded potentials?
Addition of graded potentials from several stimuli before they die out.
What is the resting membrane potential?
The baseline voltage across a membrane when a neuron is not firing.
What is the goal of the nervous system?
To use cells to receive, create, and send electrical signals to cause and regulate behavior.
What are the two major divisions of the nervous system?
Central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS).
What does the peripheral nervous system (PNS) consist of?
Nerves that connect the brain or spinal cord with muscles, glands, sense organs, and other tissues.
What is the function of a neuron?
Generates electrical signals called action potentials or nerve impulses.
What are the parts of a neuron?
Cell body (soma), dendrites, axon, initial segment/axon hillock, axon terminal.
What is the role of dendrites in a neuron?
Receive information, typically through neurotransmitters.
What is the function of interneurons?
Integrate groups of afferent and efferent neurons into reflex circuits.
What does a neuron do to transmit signals?
Takes itself from a resting state, fires an electrical impulse, and tells the next neuron to do the same.
What is the resting membrane potential?
The electrical potential across the membrane of a neuron at rest.
What happens during action potential?
Pump returns ions to original locations after depolarization and repolarization
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