What does sex refer to?
What does gender refer to?
How does culture traditionally view masculinity?
How does culture traditionally view femininity?
What are gender roles?
Traditionally, what roles have men been expected to fulfill?
Traditionally, what roles have women been expected to fulfill?
What determines gender roles?
How are sex and gender often mistakenly linked?
When do biological sex differences begin to appear in a fetus?
Around 6 to 7 weeks of gestation.
What chromosome combinations are most common for biological sex?
Can chromosome combinations other than XX or XY occur?
Yes — other combinations exist and can result in ambiguous genitalia or intersex variations.
How is a baby’s sex typically assigned at birth?
By a visual examination of the external genitalia.
Why is assigning sex at birth not always accurate?
Because external genitalia may not reflect chromosomal makeup, especially in intersex cases.
What physical similarities exist between children assigned male and female before puberty?
What do physiologists and psychologists study to understand sex differences in behavior?
How prenatal sex hormones affect the central nervous system and behavior.
What does research say about biological predispositions to gendered behavior?
There is no conclusive evidence that people are born with behavior differences based solely on biology.
What did cross-cultural studies show about aggression in boys and girls?
What does current research suggest causes higher aggression in males?
What does 'Social Bases of Gender Differentiation' refer to?
Who are most often in nurturing roles that can show gender bias?
Why should people in nurturing roles understand gender bias?
What is a self-fulfilling prophecy in the context of gender?
How can teachers influence students' gender roles?
How might assuming girls are nonaggressive affect them?
How might assuming boys are naturally analytical affect them?
What did research show about classroom treatment of boys and girls?
How do teachers' interactions with boys and girls differ?
How do children's books reinforce gender stereotypes?
What effects can stereotypical gender representations have on children?
Why has research on gender bias in education become political?
What did Sadker (1999) note about ultraconservative reactions to gender equity research?
How can teachers and parents reduce hidden gender bias?
What is the ultimate goal of addressing gender bias in education?
What happens during adolescence that affects sex differentiation?
What physical difference commonly develops between men and women during adolescence?
Men usually develop more muscular builds, especially in the upper body.
Why might men have greater muscle strength than women?
Higher testosterone levels and more upper-body muscle mass.
What physical traits are women more likely to have?
A higher proportion of body fat, especially around the breasts and hips.
What advantage might women's body composition give them?
Potentially greater endurance than men.
In what skills might women typically excel due to physical dexterity?
What actually shapes adult gender behavior more—biology or society?
Socialization into gender roles rather than physical differences.
What does cross-cultural research show about gender roles?
They vary widely depending on social norms, not physical traits.
What did Margaret Mead study regarding gender roles?
The Chambri (Tchambuli) society of New Guinea.
What were women's roles in the Chambri society?
How did Mead describe the Chambri women's personalities?
What roles did Chambri men typically hold?
How did Chambri men differ emotionally from women?
How did Chambri women typically behave toward men?
What did later researchers note about Mead's observations?
What do African societies show about gender roles?
How did European colonization affect African gender roles?
What happened to the Igbo women of Nigeria in 1929?
What was the result of the Igbo women's continued resistance?
What determines how a society defines gender roles?
How were gender roles in hunting and gathering societies?
What happens to gender-role differentiation as societies grow wealthier?
What question do sociologists ask about modern gender inequality?
What are the two main theories that explain gender differentiation?
What do structural functionalists believe about society?
What roles do functionalists say women have traditionally played?
What are examples of women's expressive functions?
What traditional role is assigned to men in structural functionalism?
What duties were tied to men's instrumental role?
Why are women's traditional roles undervalued economically?
How do functionalists explain the shift of family functions over time?
What is one modern example of traditional family functions shifting outward?
What does the conflict theory of gender differentiation focus on?
How does conflict theory view traditional gender dynamics?
According to conflict theory, how did gender inequality begin historically?
Why were women valued in early societies according to conflict theorists?
How did men ensure control over property and inheritance?
What role did industrialization play in gender inequality?
How did men retain dominance during industrialization?
What kinds of laws limited women's opportunities historically?
How did men's dominance continue legally and socially?
Who else was negatively affected by male dominance, according to conflict theorists?
How did a supply of poorly paid women workers benefit employers?
How do structural functionalism and conflict theory differ in explaining gender?
What does conflict theory predict as societies develop?
How does conflict theory explain men's continued dominance?
Men use wealth and power to maintain higher social positions at women's expense.
Have women always played a role in the economy?
Yes. Women have contributed to home production and the broader workforce throughout history.
What economic roles did women hold in the Middle Ages?
What were guilds in medieval times?
Trade organizations that women could sometimes join to work and learn skilled trades.
How did convents benefit women in the Middle Ages?
Convents offered education, community, and independence; some women became wealthy and influential.
Who were the Beguines?
Unmarried women in 12th-century Low Countries who lived like nuns without vows and could leave or marry anytime.
What industries did women often work in before the Industrial Revolution?
Textiles and other goods produced at home or in small workshops.
How did industrialization affect women's work?
Production moved to factories; women, often poor and single, worked long hours for low pay.
What was one effect of 19th-century protective labor laws?
They limited women's work hours but also reduced their job opportunities.
By the 19th century, what was the main source of well-being for most women?
What opportunities did upper-class women have at the start of the 20th century?
How were working-class women employed in the early 20th century?
How were married working women viewed during the Great Depression?
What happened when World War II began in 1941?
What jobs did women hold during World War II?
What famous symbol represented women workers during World War II?
What happened to women workers after World War II ended?
What was the 'baby boom'?
Why did women re-enter the workforce in the 1960s?
By 2016, what percentage of U.S. workers were women?
\(47\%\) of all workers were women
By 2016, what percentage of women were in the workforce?
\(56.8\%\) of women were in the workforce
What was the median income for women working full-time in 2015?
\(40,742\) (about \(79.5\%\) of men's median income of \(51,212\))
In 1960, what percentage of men's income did women earn?
About \(61\%\) (\(16,144\) for women vs. \(26,608\) for men)
When did the gender income gap widen significantly?
During the 1960s and 1970s, as more women entered low-paying jobs
What was the lowest historical point of women's earnings compared to men's?
Around \(56.6\%\) of men's income during the 1970s
By 2017, what percent of men's earnings did women make?
About \(80\%\) of men's earnings
Why is the gender pay gap narrowing?
Mainly because men's mean income has decreased, not because full equality has been achieved
Why does the gender pay gap remain a major question for sociologists?
Are women paid equally for equivalent work?
How do smaller salaries affect long-term income?
What is a split labor market?
What kind of jobs are in the primary labor market?
Who typically works in the primary labor market?
What kind of jobs are in the secondary labor market?
Where do most women work in the split labor market?
How does the split labor market contribute to gender inequality?
Why do some women choose 'mother-friendly' jobs?
What trend has occurred in the secondary labor market since the 1980s?
It has grown in size while unions lost power, reducing job security and benefits.
How has automation affected workers in the secondary labor market?
Machines replaced many jobs, leading to more temporary, repetitive, and low-wage work.
What benefits do secondary labor market workers usually lack?
How have global markets affected labor unions?
Power in upper-tier unions declined, while lower-tier unions gained strength to fight unfair practices.
Why are women still disproportionately poor compared to men?
Women are overrepresented in low-paying secondary jobs, often in unstable or outsourced industries.
What happens to jobs in the secondary labor market in developing countries?
Many jobs are moved there to take advantage of cheaper labor, often exploiting rural women.
What additional challenges do women in some Asian countries face when leaving home for work?
They may be viewed as less respectable or struggle to find marriage opportunities afterward.
Is it illegal to pay someone less because of gender?
Yes, gender-based pay discrimination is illegal, but it is not illegal to pay less for jobs considered low prestige.
What question does the concept of comparable worth address?
Whether jobs held mostly by women are paid less simply because they are female-dominated.
What is the main claim of Paula England's 'Comparable Worth' (1992)?
Give an example of unequal pay between male- and female-dominated jobs.
What were the average salaries by gender for clerical work?
What were the average salaries by gender for maintenance work?
What does 'comparable worth' mean?
Why has the idea of comparable worth faced resistance?
What barrier do women face when trying to reach top positions?
What percentage of board seats did women hold in 2013?
What trend has been observed in women's corporate advancement?
What percentage of corporate officers in Fortune 500 companies were women in 1995, 2005, and 2009?
Has the number of women vice presidents or higher increased recently?
How do salaries of women CEOs compare to men's?
Between 2010 and 2017, in how many years did women CEOs earn more than men?
What was the median compensation for female and male CEOs in 2017?
How many CEOs in the 2017 Equilar/Associated Press study were women?
What was the highest annual compensation for a female CEO in 2017 and who received it?
What was the highest annual compensation for a male CEO in 2017 and who received it?
What does upward mobility refer to?
The ability to rise to higher positions within an organization or society.
What two types of experience increase earnings and help reach executive positions?
What does authority mean in the workplace?
Having supervisory experience and making decisions in a leadership role.
What does autonomy mean on the job?
Having control over how one's work is done and making independent choices about tasks.
Why is autonomy considered more desirable than authority?
People who control how they work are more committed and satisfied than those told what to do.
Historically, why have women had less authority and autonomy at work?
Because they've worked mainly in female-dominated jobs like nursing and teaching, which rarely provide either.
What pattern occurs when men enter female-dominated jobs?
They advance more quickly and gain authority faster than women in the same fields.
In mixed-gender occupations, who is more likely to get positions with both authority and autonomy?
Men are still more likely, even when education and experience are equal.
What kind of work do women carry the greatest burden in, according to sociologists?
What happens when women enter the workforce full-time?
Why do many working mothers reduce or pause their careers?
How does unfair division of household labor affect marriages?
What most influences wives' satisfaction with housework?
Is unequal division of housework only a U.S. issue?
How does sharing housework affect relationships?
Do working women spend less time on housework than nonworking women?
What happens to women's household workload when children are young?
According to Salary.com, how much would a stay-at-home mom earn per year (2018)?
What is the women's movement?
Efforts by women to gain political and economic power; active for over a century in Europe and the United States.
How do women's movements in Europe and the U.S. differ?
They share the goal of equality but have emphasized different aspects of women's rights.
What has been the main focus of the U.S. women's movement?
Equal rights — not special privileges.
Why has the movement avoided aligning with political parties or unions?
To prevent division among women and maintain unity around equality.
What internal division has the women's movement faced?
Conflict between advocating workplace equality and supporting women as homemakers.
How do working mothers in the U.S. compare to those in Europe?
They receive fewer benefits and less support for balancing work and family.
What rights have women in the U.S. gained through the movement?
What was one major victory of the women's suffrage movement?
Gaining the right to vote in the 1920s.
What is the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA)?
A proposed U.S. constitutional amendment to guarantee equal legal rights regardless of sex.
What does the ERA state?
When was the ERA approved by Congress?
Why did the ERA fail to become part of the Constitution?
Why was the ERA's failure disappointing to the women's movement?
What difficulties do U.S. women still face despite progress?
How do European women's social benefits compare to U.S. women?
What have women's movements in Sweden and France focused on?
Why do European women's movements emphasize better pay and benefits?
How have European women's movements achieved success?
How much do Swedish women currently earn compared to men?
What parental leave benefits exist in Sweden?
What childcare benefits does Sweden provide?
What maternity benefits do Austrian women receive?
How does Austria's maternity leave compare to Sweden's?
What benefits do single parents receive in France?
What child-related tax benefit exists in the U.S.?
Which country provides the best overall benefits for working women?
How does the gender pay gap in Europe compare to the U.S.?
What additional support do European countries offer compared to the U.S.?
What is the most obvious result of gender inequality in the United States?
What system contributes to ongoing gender differences?
What major issues are discussed under the consequences of gender inequality?
What amendment is often associated with attempts to ensure gender equality in the U.S.?
What would the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) guarantee if ratified?
What percentage of women who were heads of families lived below the poverty line in 2015?
Who are considered heads of families?
Which demographic group is most likely to be chronically poor?
What is the term for the growing number of women who head poor families?
Which women are most likely to live in poverty in the U.S.?
How do children affect a mother's economic situation?
What kind of jobs are often available to poor single mothers?
What is the 'fragile family'?
Why do single mothers in fragile families face hardship?
How does widowhood contribute to poverty among older women?
Why do older women outnumber older poor men?
What legal change contributed to the feminization of poverty?
What are no-fault divorce laws?
When were no-fault divorce laws first introduced in the U.S.?
Why can no-fault divorces lead to poverty for women?
How does a woman's standard of living typically change after divorce?
Why do many women have low self-esteem about homemaking and motherhood?
What theory did Gove and Geerken propose about women's stress?
Which study tested stress differences between U.S. and Mexican women?
What did the U.S.-Mexico self-esteem study find?
What did Cotten (1999) find about women's stress compared to men's?
What did Garima and Kiran (2014) discover in India?
Being married negatively affected the mental health of working women.
Which aspect of self-esteem do many women in the U.S. struggle with?
Their physical appearance and body image.
Why do many women experience body image stress?
What serious effects can body dissatisfaction cause?
Do body image concerns affect only women?
No; studies show men — especially in Australia — also struggle with body image and self-esteem.
How do cultural values affect body image?
Cultural values and social expectations shape how men and women view body image and self-worth.
How common is depression among women compared to men in the U.S.?
Which groups of women are most at risk for depression?
How do physicians typically treat men and women differently?
What bias exists in the cardiology system for women?
What does research suggest about overall health care for women?
What unnecessary reproductive procedures are often performed on women?
What percentage of these reproductive procedures are often unnecessary?
About 90%.
How does women's medical spending compare to men's?
Why is the high rate of uninsured women in the U.S. concerning?
What is a hysterectomy?
What are common psychological effects of hysterectomy for many women?
Which reproductive technologies have gained attention in recent years?
What is amniocentesis?
What possible outcome can result from detecting serious fetal defects via amniocentesis?
How do women often feel after an abortion according to research?
What is sexual harassment?
What consequences can women face for rejecting sexual advances at work?
How many working women consider sexual harassment a serious problem?
What percentage of working women report personal experience of sexual harassment?
Where is sexual harassment also a major problem besides workplaces?
Why is sexual harassment difficult to eliminate?
What is family violence?
Where are women most likely to experience violence?
In their own homes, often from family members.
What percentage of U.S. women experience intimate-partner-related violence in their lifetime?
How many men experience intimate-partner-related assaults?
\(\approx 37.3\ \text{million}\) men
How many women were murdered by an intimate partner in 2016?
\(962\) women
What percentage of women worldwide have experienced violence in an intimate relationship?
About \(30\%\) worldwide
Why do many abused women stay in violent homes?
What makes it difficult for women to leave abusive environments?
How many women are estimated to be battered each year by their husbands or lovers?
\(\approx 4\ \text{million}\) women per year
How many rapes were reported in 1982 according to the FBI?
\(78,770\) reported rapes (1982, FBI)
How many rapes were reported by 2017?
\(\approx 100{,}000\) reported by 2017.
What percentage of U.S. women and men have experienced forced sex?
How many people in the U.S. have experienced forced sex?
What percentage of female college students report having been raped?
\(20\% - 25\%\) of female college students.
How much higher are actual rape rates compared to reported ones?
Actual rates are about \(2\)–\(3\) times higher than official statistics.
What percentage of sexual assault victims on college campuses do not report the assault?
About \(90\%\) of campus sexual assault victims do not report.
What is a common myth about rape?
That rape usually occurs between strangers.
What is acquaintance rape (or date rape)?
Rape committed by someone known to the victim.
What often motivates rape when committed by men?
Often aggression and desire for power, not sexual desire.
Why do some men commit rape?
Why is the victim often blamed in rape cases?
What happens to a victim's reputation during a rape trial?
What have some feminists argued about causes of rape and violence?
How does pornography contribute to aggression toward women, according to critics?
What message does media objectification of women send?
What societal condition fosters violence between sexes?
What do structural functionalists predict about the future of gender inequality?
What evidence supports that women's status is improving?
What does the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics say about women's earnings?
What combination of theories predicts continued inequality?
How might class affect future gender equality?
What is likely to happen to working-class women in the labor market?
What overall trend is predicted for gender differentiation?
What do modern societies use to differentiate people?
Do biological sex differences explain behavioral differences between men and women?
How do gender roles differ across cultures?
What do structural functionalists say about gender roles?
How do conflict theorists view gender inequality?
Why were women encouraged to marry and have babies?
What kinds of jobs do most women enter when they join the workforce?
Are women paid equally for jobs requiring comparable skills?
Why is upward mobility limited for women?
How does family responsibility affect women's health?
What did women's movements in Europe focus on?
What did the U.S. women's movement emphasize?
What percentage of U.S. women live in poverty when supporting children?
What financial disadvantage exists in no-fault divorces for women?
Why do some women in the U.S. have low self-esteem?
Why do women often get less adequate healthcare?
Who is more likely to experience violence, men or women?
What is one prediction about the future of gender inequality?
According to Genesis 2:18, why did God create woman?
What key event is described in Genesis 3:6 regarding the Fall?
What differential consequence for women is stated in Genesis 3:16?
What differential consequence for men is given in Genesis 3:17–19?
How is creation framed in terms of gender roles in the notes?
Man and woman were differentially created with complementary roles.
Which long-form report is cited as a resource on sexuality and gender?
Sexuality and Gender (2016) from The New Atlantis
Which source lists 2022 statistics on women in the workforce (roles & pay gap)?
TeamStage — 'Women in the Workforce Statistics 2022' article
Which article is cited about women CEOs in the Fortune 500?
A 2019 CNN report on women CEOs in the Fortune 500
What do societies generally expect from people of different ages?
Different behaviors in dress, music, leisure, sex, and work depending on age
Why do many individuals not look forward to growing old?
Because they associate attractiveness, health, and productivity with youth
What societal concerns arise from an increasing aged population?
According to Ekman et al. (2001), what transportation trend was observed among the elderly in Sweden?
The bicycle became a common means of transport for people aged 65 or older
How much greater was the risk of dying from bicycling for the elderly compared to children 14 or under?
About 3.7 times greater
How much greater was bicycling death risk for the elderly compared to the average bicyclist?
About 3 times greater, rising to as much as 6 times for ages 75–84
According to Ekman et al. (2001), why has society neglected elderly bicyclist safety?
Because decision makers tend to focus on the relatively young
What solution did Ekman et al. (2001) suggest regarding rising elderly bicycling injuries?
Greater interest and intervention to ameliorate or prevent the problem
What does the term age generally refer to?
The number of years since a person's birth.
What type of status is age considered to be?
An ascribed status over which individuals have no choice or control.
What are social expectations for different age groups called?
They are called age norms.
What do age norms define?
Appropriate behaviors and roles for people of specific age groups.
What are examples of age norms in behavior?
How do social timetables influence expectations about age?
They indicate whether people are 'on schedule' for life events like finishing school, marrying, or retiring.
What does variation in age norms among societies show?
Ideas about appropriate behavior for the aged differ widely across cultures.
Give an example of cultural variation in views about aging.
What is aging?
A broad concept involving biological, psychological, and social changes as people grow older.
What is biological aging?
Physical changes in the body, e.g., wrinkles, gray hair, hormonal shifts, and system changes like in the nervous or immune systems.
What is psychological aging?
Mental changes such as learning, thinking, remembering, and emotional functioning.
What is social aging?
Changes in social roles and relationships over the life course, such as marriage, work, and retirement.
What does the life course refer to?
The age-related progression of social roles and group memberships throughout life.
What does the life course concept emphasize?
Who are considered the aged?
What is gerontology?
What is geriatrics?
What is social gerontology?
What are stereotypes about the aged?
What can stereotypes about aging lead to?
What is ageism?
According to Carolyn Wilken (2002), what are common myths about old age?
What is the myth about senility and old age?
Why is it harmful to believe myths about the elderly?
What can happen if older adults believe they have no potential for growth?
How do age-related changes in learning ability compare to common beliefs?
Are most older adults lonely?
No. Many maintain stable friendships and close family ties throughout life.
What percentage of older parents see or communicate with their children frequently?
About 80% see one or more of their children every week or two.
Do most elderly people have health problems that limit daily activities?
No. Most people over 65 report good to excellent health and can perform routine activities.
What percentage of people aged 85 or older report good or excellent health?
Over 50%.
What is the common myth about elderly victimization?
That older people are more likely victims of crime, when their victimization rates are actually lower than others'.
Who poses a greater risk to older adults than strangers?
Family members or caregivers who may exploit or steal from them.
Are most elderly people poor?
No. Most are not at the poverty level due to Social Security, pensions, savings, and home ownership.
How did Social Security change elderly poverty rates?
It reduced elderly poverty from one-third before its implementation to about 1 in 10 today.
Do people generally become more religious as they age?
Not generally; most people's religious views remain stable throughout life.
Why might some elderly adults participate less in organized religious activities?
Mobility issues, though many engage in private religious activities instead.
Are older workers less productive than younger workers?
No. They often remain productive, motivated, and valuable mentors.
How do older workers contribute to society?
Many make significant achievements in their seventh and eighth decades of life.
Do all old people experience a decline in health after retirement?
No. Many remain healthy and active well into old age.
Is there evidence that people's health rapidly declines after retirement?
No. Studies show most retirees remain healthy and productive for many years after retiring.
How long can people in the U.S. now expect to live past retirement age?
Well over a decade, with much of that time spent in good health.
What is the myth about sexual disinterest or incapacity in old age?
That older people have no interest in or capacity for sexual relations.
What have studies shown about sexuality in late life?
Sexual response and interest can continue throughout life; sexual disorders can be reversible.
What factor is more important than age in maintaining sexual relationships in old age?
Health.
What percentage of elderly adults live in nursing homes or long-term care institutions?
About 5%.
How do most elderly people use nursing homes or long-term care facilities?
As temporary rehabilitation centers for recovery after illness or injury.
What percentage of adults will never live in a nursing home?
About 75%.
How can myths about aging affect treatment of the elderly?
They can lead to discrimination and insensitive treatment by families, caregivers, and society.
What overall message does the text give about aging and prejudice?
Discrimination against the aged harms everyone; recognizing the potential and dignity of older adults benefits all.
What is the focus of the demographic study of aging in sociology?
Examining how population numbers, characteristics, and age structures change and affect societies.
Why is the aging population significant in industrialized nations?
Because the large number of elderly people is unprecedented in world history.
At what age are people generally considered elderly in the United States?
Age 65 and older.
What two categories do gerontologists often use to describe the elderly?
What percentage of the U.S. population is expected to be age 65 and older by 2030?
About 20%.
How much is the population of people age 65 and older expected to grow between 2015 and 2060?
Projected to double from 48 million to nearly 100 million.
What is the projected U.S. population of people age 65 and over in 2030, 2040, and 2050?
How is the population of people age 80 and over expected to change by 2050?
Which country had the largest number of people age 65 and older as of 2012?
Which country had the highest old-age dependency ratio as of 2012?
What is the dependency ratio?
How is the dependency ratio calculated?
What is the old-age dependency ratio?
How is the total dependency ratio expected to change between 2020 and 2050?
What is the expected change in the old-age dependency ratio from 2020 to 2050?
What major factor contributes to the rise in the old-age dependency ratio?
What effect does a lower birth rate have on society's ability to support the elderly?
How much did the number of centenarians in the U.S. increase between 2010 and 2014?
What is life expectancy?
What does life expectancy at birth measure?
What was the estimated life expectancy at birth in most industrialized countries as of 2017?
How does life expectancy differ between industrialized and developing countries?
In developing countries life expectancy at birth can be less than 60 years.
What was the average life expectancy in the U.S. in 2017?
80 years
How does life expectancy in the U.S. vary by gender and race (born 2014)?
What was the projected life expectancy for people born in the 1950s?
Around 68 years
What was the life expectancy for people born in 2000?
76.8 years
How long were people aged 75 in 2009 projected to live?
They were projected to live to age 87.
Why does life expectancy increase as we get older?
Because surviving earlier life risks changes the expected remaining years of life.
What factors influence life expectancy over time?
How has life expectancy changed compared to the human life span?
Life expectancy has increased significantly, while the human life span has remained virtually unchanged (~115 years).
What average maximum human life span did Albert Einstein College of Medicine scientists report?
115 years
What do most biologists believe about extending the human life span?
Most biologists see no major scientific breakthrough likely to extend the human life span in the near future.
What is the difference between life expectancy and life span?
What percentage of the U.S. population over age 65 in 2014 were women?
56%
How do elderly men and women differ in marital status?
What is the most dramatic marital-status difference between elderly men and women?
In 2015, how many widows and widowers were there among people over 65?
Why are there more elderly widows than widowers?
Who is more likely to remarry after losing a spouse?
What percentage of the elderly population is institutionalized in nursing homes or long-term care?
Where are elderly people in the U.S. most concentrated?
Which states had the largest elderly populations as of 2018?
Which state has the smallest elderly population?
Which state has the highest proportion of elderly residents?
Which region saw the largest increase in elderly population between 1995 and 2010?
Why do politicians need to understand the demographics of aging?
What are some major organizations representing older adults in the U.S.?
How large is the AARP membership?
What do organizations like AARP focus on improving?
Why must politicians pay attention to elderly voters?
Why should business leaders be aware of aging demographics?
How does an aging population affect advertising?
Why should community planners consider elderly demographics?
What types of facilities might planners include for an aging population?
How can understanding aging demographics be useful personally?
How might the growing elderly population affect future costs and competition?
What do sociologists study when examining theories of aging?
What type of process is aging?
What do biological theories of aging focus on?
What do social theories of aging explain that biological theories do not?
What does structural functionalism study in relation to aging?
According to the functionalist perspective, what should societies provide for all citizens, including the elderly?
What does modernization theory propose about aging?
With modernization, the social status and influence of older people decline.
Which factors contribute to the decline in status of older adults according to modernization theory?
How does scientific technology affect the elderly in modernization theory?
It creates new jobs primarily for the young, leaving the elderly in traditional roles that become obsolete.
What effect does urbanization have on older adults?
It separates younger and older generations, reducing the elderly's influence and leadership roles.
How does mass education contribute to modernization's impact on the elderly?
It benefits younger people with new skills and literacy, allowing them to take high-status positions once held by elders.
What effect has health technology had on aging populations?
Overall, what does modernization theory suggest about the elderly's position in society?
They experience a decline in economic power, prestige, and leadership as modernization advances.
What do critics argue about modernization theory?
Modernization is a vague and nonlinear process; the elderly may be affected differently across cultures and stages.
What evidence contradicts modernization theory?
In Japan, the elderly have maintained high prestige and respect despite industrialization.
What does disengagement theory propose?
As people age, they gradually withdraw from social roles and relationships, preparing for the end of life.
Why is gradual withdrawal considered functional according to disengagement theory?
It allows both society and the elderly to adjust smoothly to role transitions and prevent social disruption.
How does disengagement theory view society's role in helping older adults?
Why is disengagement theory now considered outdated?
Evidence shows most elderly do not want to withdraw and find satisfaction in remaining active.
What did Robert Atchley (1991) argue about disengagement?
Disengagement is often imposed on older adults by lack of opportunities or poor health, not chosen voluntarily.
What is a main criticism of disengagement theory?
It assumes withdrawal is natural or desirable, while most older adults prefer continued social involvement.
What does symbolic interaction theory focus on in relation to aging?
How people define themselves, interpret life events, and find meaning in aging through social interactions and relationships.
What is the activity theory of aging?
The most well-adjusted elderly are those who remain socially and physically active.
How does activity theory differ from disengagement theory?
What activities does activity theory recommend for older adults?
According to Lemon's research, which type of activity is most related to life satisfaction in the elderly?
Informal activity, such as interaction with friends, relatives, and neighbors.
Which types of activities were not significantly related to life satisfaction in Lemon's study?
What are some limitations of activity theory?
What questionable assumption does activity theory make?
What do psychologists and sociologists agree is not enough for a satisfying life?
What is the ongoing debate between disengagement and activity theorists?
How is activity theory now viewed in modern sociology?
What does social exchange theory suggest about human interactions?
How does Dowd apply exchange theory to aging?
Why do older adults have less bargaining power according to Dowd?
How does Dowd explain withdrawal from social roles in old age?
Why are even financially stable and healthy elderly disadvantaged in exchange relationships?
What does conflict theory of aging emphasize?
Why are older people treated unfairly in the job market, according to conflict theory?
How might younger workers contribute to age inequality, according to conflict theorists?
They may support policies that force older workers to retire to preserve their own job opportunities.
What happens to elderly people without income, according to conflict theory?
They lose power and are unable to resist negative stereotypes or discrimination.
How are the elderly stereotyped in society?
What impact do negative perceptions of aging have on the elderly?
They justify denying older adults equal access to jobs, wages, housing, and resources.
What positive outcome do conflict theorists see in aging controversies?
They raise awareness of aging as a social issue and motivate collective action for reform.
What organizations have worked to improve the social standing of the elderly?
Who founded the Gray Panthers, and for what purpose?
Margaret Kuhn founded the Gray Panthers in the early 1970s to promote the rights of the elderly.
What do conflict theorists view as essential for improving conditions for older adults?
What are some main issues faced by the elderly in the United States?
Why is retirement considered a modern phenomenon?
Historically, few people lived long enough for retirement to be a social concern.
In which societies is retirement still uncommon today?
In agrarian societies, where there is little paid employment to retire from.
When did retirement become a significant issue in Japan?
In the mid-1900s, when life expectancy rose to about 60-65 years.
What was Japan's traditional retirement policy?
How did Japan's increasing life expectancy affect retirement policy?
It created pressure to raise the retirement age because the number of retirees grew.
What change did Japan make to address its labor and retirement challenges?
The government raised the retirement age from 55 to 60.
What caused discontent among older Japanese workers?
What are 'Silver Talent Centers' in Japan?
What kinds of jobs do retirees perform through Silver Talent Centers?
What benefits do Silver Talent Centers offer retirees?
What broader factors influence issues of aging besides demographics?
Why is raising the work age limit considered important in Japan?
How can opportunities for elderly contributions benefit society?
When is retirement most problematic for individuals?
How is voluntary retirement often viewed?
What does retirement of any kind require?
When did the issue of mandatory retirement first arise in the U.S.?
What law set the standard retirement age at 65 in the U.S.?
When did Congress raise the standard mandatory retirement age from 65 to 70?
Why do critics argue that mandatory retirement is discriminatory?
What is an argument for mandatory retirement?
What does having a set retirement age emphasize?
What are the three stages of the retirement process (Atchley)?
What happens during the preretirement stage?
What occurs during the retirement transition stage?
What defines the post-retirement stage?
What are the five stages of retirement adjustment (Atchley)?
What happens during the honeymoon stage of retirement?
What characterizes the disenchantment stage?
What occurs in the reorientation stage?
What defines the stability stage of retirement?
What marks the termination stage of retirement?
What did Atchley find about women's retirement patterns?
What was the average retirement age in Atchley's study?
How did retirement affect life satisfaction in Atchley's study?
How did retirement affect activity levels for men and women?
What activities did retirees commonly engage in?
Which factors were linked to higher life satisfaction after retirement?
How does physical activity influence satisfaction in retirement?
What did Reitzes, Mutran, and McDonald confirm about Atchley's conclusions?
How do elderly lifestyles compare to other adults?
How do wealthy elderly typically live?
Why do middle-class elderly often leave suburban homes?
Where do many middle-class retirees move?
What advantages do retirement villages offer?
Where do some elderly prefer to retire instead of age-segregated communities?
What housing options are common for the elderly poor?
Why might rural elderly move to the city?
What challenges do the elderly poor face?
How do poverty rates among the elderly compare to the rest of the population?
What percentage of elderly householders were below the poverty line in 2009?
\(8.9\%\) (down from \(9.7\%\) in 2007)
What was the 2017 median income of households with a person age 65 or over?
\(24,224\)
How did 2017 median income vary by race among elderly people?
What misconception about elderly poverty did David Cheal (1983) note?
That most elderly people in North America are poorer than they actually are
What helps many elderly people maintain a good standard of living despite lower incomes?
Home ownership and accumulated assets
How does gift giving relate to elderly finances, according to Cheal?
Older adults often give more financial aid to relatives than they receive
What is the most common source of income for the aged?
Social Security
What happens to Social Security benefits if retirees continue to work?
Benefits may be reduced or eliminated
What program assists retirees who don't qualify for Social Security?
Supplemental Security Income (SSI)
How much did SSI benefits increase from 2000 to 2019?
From \(513\) per month in 2000 to \(771\) per month in 2019
When and why was the U.S. Social Security program created?
During the 1930s Depression to support unemployed citizens
What was the original purpose of Social Security?
To supplement retirement income, not to fully provide it
Why is the future of Social Security a concern?
Growing number of retirees raises costs and may reduce benefits
Why do people in lower-paying jobs receive lower Social Security benefits?
Smaller salaries and many low-paying jobs lack pensions
What financial problem do retirees from low-paying jobs often face?
Poverty, even when receiving SSI
Can a married person receive part of their spouse's Social Security benefits?
Yes; but the spouse's company pension usually stops after the spouse dies
Why do women often receive lower Social Security benefits than men?
What myth about aging and health is discussed?
How do most elderly people in the U.S. rate their health?
What percentage of people over age 65 rated their health positively between 2012 and 2014?
What racial differences exist in elderly health ratings?
How do most older adults perceive their age group?
What are the leading chronic diseases among the elderly?
Why is chronic disease a major concern for the elderly?
Why do senior citizens account for a disproportionate share of health care costs?
What was the average annual health-care cost per person age 65 and older in 2010?
What government programs help cover elderly medical costs?
What percentage of elderly medical expenses do Medicare and Medicaid typically cover?
What are some limitations of Medicare coverage?
What is pauperization in relation to Medicaid?
What factors compound the health-care problems of the elderly?
Which mental health issue is often overlooked in the elderly?
What percentage of people over 65 suffer from some form of depression?
What stereotype about aging and mental health is incorrect?
How can quality of life be improved for senile dementia patients?
How many elderly people worldwide are expected to suffer from mental illness by 2030?
What is Alzheimer's disease?
How many Americans were living with Alzheimer's disease in 2016?
What percentage of people with Alzheimer's are age 65 or older?
What percentage of people over 85 have Alzheimer's?
How many people are projected to have Alzheimer's by 2050?
What are common symptoms of Alzheimer's disease?
What is the annual suicide rate among all ages in the U.S.?
Which group has the highest suicide risk in late life?
Why are suicide rates in late life higher for men than women?
How are women better able to cope with retirement compared to men?
Which sociologist's theory links social integration to suicide among the elderly?
Émile Durkheim's theory connecting social integration to mental health and suicide
What is one of the newest recognized social problems concerning the elderly?
When did elder abuse begin receiving serious attention from researchers and policymakers?
In the late 1970s
About how many cases of elder abuse were reported nationwide in 2000?
Around 472,000 cases
What proportion of elders are estimated to experience abuse?
Nearly 1 in 10
What is the most common form of elder abuse?
Passive neglect — failing to provide adequate care, food, or clothing
What is active neglect?
When caregivers intentionally withhold care or social contact, deceive, or physically restrain elders
What are examples of active neglect?
What can cause caregivers to abuse elderly dependents?
Who are the most common victims of elder abuse?
Older women, especially those over 75, frail, or disabled
Who are the most common abusers of the elderly?
Adult children or family members under stress or struggling with alcoholism or unemployment
What types of mistreatment fall under physical abuse?
How are the elderly similar to abused children in their vulnerability?
Where does elder abuse most often occur?
Why is it unlikely that major government programs will address elder abuse?
What kinds of voluntary services support elderly victims of abuse?
What is needed to improve prevention of elder abuse?
What are some key factors in preparing for old age?
What is 'death and dying' as a sociological topic?
Why is awareness of death important to living?
What role does socialization play in dying?
Which theory explains how social meanings affect coping with death?
How do social institutions influence how we think about dying?
What social influences affect death practices?
Who provides the main support for the elderly in illness?
What is the preferred place for most people to die?
Where do most people in the U.S. actually die?
Why is there a gap between preferred and actual place of death?
What percentage of cancer patients can currently die at home due to limited palliative care?
What is the hospice movement?
How is hospice care different from hospital care?
Who is involved in hospice care teams?
What features do hospice programs offer families?
Why are hospice programs often limited in availability?
What is euthanasia?
What is passive euthanasia?
What is active euthanasia?
Taking direct action to intentionally end a person's life, often at the person's or family's request.
Who was Dr. Jack Kevorkian and why is he significant?
What is the key ethical question around euthanasia?
Whether individuals have the right to end their own lives or receive help to avoid unbearable suffering.
How is the euthanasia debate connected to aging?
Elderly people face more terminal illnesses, making euthanasia a more immediate concern for them.
What social challenge does the growing elderly population create?
Creating systems that support long, active lives with dignity and provide care when people are no longer self-sufficient.
How does society differentiate behavior by age?
Age is an ascribed status with social expectations for behavior at different life stages.
What are age norms?
Social expectations for behaviors considered appropriate for specific age groups.
What are common myths about the elderly?
What age is typically considered 'elderly'?
What is the difference between the 'young-old' and the 'old-old'?
What is the old-age dependency ratio?
The ratio of nonworking elderly people to the working-age population.
What are key social characteristics of the elderly?
What does modernization theory say about aging?
The status of the elderly declines with modernization.
What does activity theory suggest?
Remaining active through work, hobbies, and social interaction leads to better adjustment in old age.
What does social exchange theory focus on regarding aging?
The elderly's decreasing power as they depend more on others, leading to inequality and potential exploitation.
What is conflict theory's view of aging?
Aging reflects broader social inequality — the elderly are disadvantaged in jobs, wages, and resources.
What is the main source of income for elderly Americans?
Social Security; supplemented by SSI for those with minimal income.
How do income and class affect health in old age?
Wealthier elderly have better health; poorer elderly face chronic illness and high medical costs.
What is the most common chronic disease among the elderly?
Hypertension; followed by heart disease, arthritis, and diabetes.
What is elder abuse?
Physical, emotional, or neglectful mistreatment of older adults, often by caregivers in their own homes.
What is a hospice?
A therapeutic environment providing compassionate care and family interaction for the terminally ill.
What is euthanasia?
Which Bible verse sets a limit on human lifespan to 120 years?
What does the graying of America refer to?
How does the AMA Code of Medical Ethics define euthanasia?
Why does the AMA say euthanasia should not be permitted?
What does the Social Security Administration Life Expectancy Calculator provide?
What is Healthy Life Expectancy at Age 60?
What does the Structural Functional Theory emphasize about aging?
What does the Symbolic Interaction Theory focus on in aging?
It studies how individuals define their roles and self-concepts in old age through social interaction and relationships.
What ethical issue does the Death and Dying section highlight?
Whether euthanasia should be allowed as a compassionate option for terminally ill patients suffering from incurable pain.
Why is the family essential to understanding society and social life?
The family is a universal social arrangement central to individual development and society's functioning.
In sociology, what three ways is the family viewed?
Why is the family considered a primary social group?
It serves as the first agency of socialization for individuals.
Why do sociologists consider the family a social system?
Why is the family considered a social institution?
It organizes an area of social life into patterns that help meet essential societal goals.
How are families interdependent with society?
Family behaviors such as childbearing, employment, and living arrangements affect education, the economy, and social services.
What can influence societal issues like Social Security and workforce size over generations?
The average number of children families have.
What practical issues complicate defining 'family'?
What can result from narrow legal definitions of 'family'?
How does the US Census define a family?
Two or more people related by birth, marriage, or adoption who share a common residence.
What additional element do scholars often include in the definition of family?
Which nontraditional family forms do many scholars include beyond the US Census?
What does the traditional definition of family emphasize?
What does the nontraditional definition of family emphasize?
How do sociologists decide some cohabiting couples are recognized as families?
What are conjugal families?
What are nuclear families?
How do nuclear and conjugal families differ?
Which definition of family does the US Census use for reporting?
How is a family household identified in Census reporting?
How many family households existed in the US in 2018?
In 2018, what percentage of US family households were husband-and-wife families?
In 2018, how many single-parent households were led by males versus females?
What trend occurred in the number of family households in the US between 2000 and 2010?
How did the percentage of family households change from 2000 to 2010?
How much did unmarried couple households change from 2000 to 2012?
What proportion of people in the US marry at some time in their lives?
What percentage of adults aged 25+ have never been married?
What is a family of orientation?
What is a family of procreation?
What is an extended family?
Which family type is considered the norm in most societies?
How are nuclear and conjugal families related to orientation and procreation?
Is the typical family in the United States nuclear or extended?
What is a modified extended family structure?
How do modified extended families differ from traditional extended families?
Why is it important to recognize multiple definitions of 'family'?
Because there is no single acceptable definition; recognizing variety helps avoid ethnocentrism, stereotypes, and research bias.
What major obstacle does Arlene Skolnick identify in studying families?
The tendency for people to use their own family experiences as the basis for generalizations about all families.
Why must social scientists recognize the variety of family patterns?
To overcome ethnocentrism, stereotypes, and prejudices that hinder objective research.
Why should politicians understand varying definitions of 'family'?
Because family definitions affect how policies such as zoning, tax laws, and welfare are implemented.
How can limiting the definition of 'family' affect people's lives?
It can have serious social and legal consequences, e.g. who qualifies under zoning or benefits laws.
What assumption can create problems for policymakers?
Assuming families fit only the middle-class nuclear model of a married couple and their children.
How does defining family affect marriage and family counseling?
Therapists who assume one 'normal' family type may wrongly label other family forms as pathological.
How can recognizing diverse family structures help counselors?
It allows counselors to be more flexible and creative in addressing needs of clients with nontraditional family patterns.
How can recognizing multiple definitions of family impact personal life?
It can lead to greater freedom and choice in how one lives and defines family relationships.
What limits exist in applying different family definitions?
Not all family patterns are workable in every social context; social and cultural conditions influence what is viable.
What is kinship?
The web of relationships among people linked by ancestry, adoption, or marriage.
What do societal norms about kinship define?
How do kinship systems differ across societies?
They vary widely in norms, roles, and expectations for family members and relationships.
What does each society define as correct regarding family and kinship?
Its own particular patterns of marriage, family, and kinship organization.
Why might people overlook the range of family variations across societies?
Because they tend to be ethnocentric and favor the family structure familiar in their own society.
What assumption do people often make about changing family patterns?
That altering family patterns will cause the institution of family to collapse.
Why is it important to recognize a variety of family and kinship patterns?
Because many types can be appropriate and functional within their own social contexts.
What is one fundamental variation among family structures worldwide?
The type of marriage and the number of spouses considered acceptable.
What are examples of marital statuses?
How do marital status and number of spouses affect family organization?
They are major factors that determine how family systems are structured.
What position does the Catholic Church hold about nuns and priests?
They must take vows of chastity and remain unmarried to devote their lives to religious service.
What trend regarding singleness is emerging in the United States?
Remaining single is becoming an increasingly acceptable lifestyle.
What is monogamy?
The marriage of one person to one other person.
How common is monogamy worldwide?
It is the only universally recognized form of marriage, though less than 20% of societies are strictly monogamous.
Why is monogamy viewed as the most 'proper' form of marriage in the US?
Because it reflects the cultural ideal that one person should marry only one other person at a time.
What is serial or sequential monogamy?
Marriage to several different spouses in succession, but only one at any given time.
Is sequential monogamy legal in the United States?
Yes, as long as it occurs one marriage at a time; being married to more than one person simultaneously is illegal.
What is polygamy?
Marriage to more than one spouse at the same time.
What is polygyny?
A form of polygamy in which a man has more than one wife.
What is polyandry?
A form of polygamy in which a woman has more than one husband.
What is group marriage?
A marriage form in which several men and/or several women are all married to each other.
According to Murdock (1957), how common was polygyny in his sample?
It was the norm in 75% of the 565 societies studied.
How common was polyandry in Murdock's sample?
Culturally favored in less than 1% of societies.
Which US community practiced a form of group marriage in the 1800s?
The Oneida Community, founded by John Humphrey Noyes.
What belief shaped the Oneida Community's group marriage?
Spiritual equality of all people and a communal sense of 'we' rather than 'I'.
What distinction should be made when discussing polygamy?
Between the ideology that permits it and its actual occurrence in society.
Why can multiple spouses only exist on a large scale in certain societies?
Because it depends on an unbalanced ratio of men to women.
What controls the practice of polygamy in societies?
What is the most common form of polygamy worldwide?
Polygyny.
In what societies and regions is polygyny most prevalent?
What percentage of women in Ibadan, Nigeria, were in polygamous marriages (Ware 1979)?
Nearly 50%, with higher rates among women over 40.
What is Islam's stance on polygyny?
Muslim men are permitted up to four wives.
Where in the United States is polygyny practiced despite its illegality?
Among some Mormon fundamentalist groups in Utah and nearby states.
What was the historical position of the LDS Church on polygamy?
It was originally sanctioned by founder Joseph Smith, who claimed divine revelation approving plural marriage in 1843.
When did the LDS Church officially renounce polygamy?
In 1890, through the Manifesto issued by President Wilford Woodruff.
When did some LDS members continue to engage in plural marriage until?
Until 1904, when a second manifesto was issued by church president Joseph F. Smith.
What organization formed from disagreement over plural marriage within the LDS Church?
The Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (FLDS).
How does the FLDS Church differ from the LDS Church?
The FLDS continues to practice plural marriage, while the LDS Church officially rejected it and distances itself from the FLDS.
Who was Warren Steed Jeffs?
A radical FLDS leader convicted in 2007 for sexual assault of a minor and known for having around 78 wives.
What was significant about Warren Jeffs's case?
It brought national attention to polygamy and highlighted the FLDS Church's continued practice of plural marriage.
What is fraternal polyandry?
A form of polyandry where a woman is married to brothers who are cohusbands of the same generation.
Where is fraternal polyandry traditionally practiced?
Among the Toda, a non-Hindu tribe in India.
What is the neocal residence pattern?
When a newly married couple establishes a residence separate from both families.
In what type of societies is the neocal pattern common?
In Western societies where monogamy and individualism are valued.
What is the patrilocal residence pattern?
When a newly married couple lives near or with the husband's family.
What type of societies often follow a patrilocal pattern?
Societies where men control land or family property; e.g. Amish communities in the U.S.
What is the matrilocal residence pattern?
When a newly married couple lives near or with the wife's family.
In what percentage of societies studied by Murdock was the matrilocal pattern found?
About 15% of societies studied by Murdock.
Where does matrilocality often occur?
In societies where women held land titles.
What are norms of descent and inheritance?
Rules determining which family line—maternal or paternal—is more important for inheritance and lineage.
How does Western society generally treat lineage?
It gives little importance to lineage beyond determining surnames.
What is a patrilineal system of descent?
A system in which descent and inheritance are traced through the father's lineage.
In a patrilineal system, who holds authority and inheritance rights?
What is a matrilineal system of descent?
A system in which descent and inheritance are traced through the mother's line.
In a matrilineal system, who holds authority and responsibility?
The mother's kin; property, wealth, and kinship are traced through female relatives.
Give an example of a culture that follows a matrilineal system.
The Trobriand Islanders.
What is bilateral lineage?
A system in which kinship, wealth, and inheritance are passed equally through both the mother's and father's sides.
What is a social consequence of bilateral lineage?
Parents and kin groups have less influence over their children's marriage choices.
What are norms of authority in families?
Rules about who makes important decisions and holds power within the family.
What is a patriarchal system?
A family system in which men hold the primary power and authority.
What is a matriarchal system?
A family system where women, especially mothers, hold authority and dominate decision-making.
How common are matriarchal systems?
They are rare, even among matrilineal societies.
What is the egalitarian model of authority?
Husbands and wives share decision-making equally.
What kind of authority system is most common in the United States?
Often described as more patriarchal than egalitarian.
What is exogamy?
A marriage norm requiring individuals to marry outside their own group.
What is endogamy?
A marriage norm requiring individuals to marry within their own group.
How are exogamy and endogamy different?
Exogamy promotes marrying outside the group; Endogamy restricts marriage to within the group.
What is incest?
Socially forbidden sexual relationships or marriages between close relatives.
How common are incest taboos?
Nearly universal across societies, forbidding marriage to close relatives.
Which relationships are typically forbidden under incest taboos?
Which ancient societies had exceptions to incest taboos?
Egyptian and Inca royalty are believed to have had exceptions.
What kinds of marriages are often forbidden under societal norms?
How are norms about same-sex marriage changing globally?
As of Pew Research Center 2017, 26 countries, including the U.S., allow same-sex marriage.
How have endogamous norms varied in U.S. history?
Interracial marriages were once considered improper or even illegal.
Why might incest taboos have evolved?
What did Murdock (1949) suggest about understanding incest taboos?
That they must be explained by combining theories from multiple disciplines of human behavior.
Why do many societies practice endogamy?
People within the same group share similar values, attitudes, and expectations, reducing conflict.
What is one social function of marriage within the same class or religion?
What consequence do endogamy and exogamy share?
What social pattern is shown by Merton's concept 'in-group virtues to out-group vices'?
What does the functionalist perspective emphasize about the family?
What are the key functions of the family in the functionalist view?
Which family function do sociologists consider most important?
What did Reiss (1965) argue about family functions?
Why is the family essential for a child's development?
How does the family differ from other social institutions in socialization?
How have modern social changes affected family socialization?
Despite external influences, what remains the family's key role?
Besides children, who else benefits from family socialization?
Adults continue to learn from each other and from their kin.
What is the second major function of the family according to functionalists?
Providing affection and emotional support.
What two essential functions did Parsons and Bales (1955) identify?
Why is affection and emotional support vital for individuals?
Humans are social beings who need care, affection, and companionship throughout life.
How does the family compare to other sources of social support?
The family is the most effective and enduring source of emotional and supportive relationships.
How does family connection impact aging individuals?
Older adults with strong family ties and supportive relationships tend to live longer and feel more fulfilled.
What is sexual regulation in the context of family functions?
Societies approve certain sexual behaviors and disapprove others to maintain social order.
What is the most universally approved outlet for sexual behavior?
Marriage.
What is one of the most universal sexual taboos?
Incest.
How do societies control sexual activity?
By socializing sexual norms and enforcing them through roles, taboos, and moral standards.
What are examples of sexual norms enforced by societies?
What is the most socially approved sexual interest in the United States?
Heterosexual relationships within marriage.
What types of sexual relationships are typically disapproved in U.S. society?
Why do families play a major role in regulating sexual activity?
Because sexual behavior is closely tied to reproduction and family stability.
What is the family's role in reproduction according to the functionalist perspective?
It provides the most socially approved setting for bearing and raising children.
What is the principle of legitimacy?
Malinowski's idea that every society ensures each child has a legitimate father figure for protection and representation.
According to the principle of legitimacy, what happens if children are born outside the family?
They may be stigmatized as illegitimate, though this stigma has lessened over time.
How do functionalists view nontraditional families?
They accept that father substitutes or alternative family roles can fulfill essential parenting functions.
What do interactionists argue about parent-child relationships?
Social bonds and interaction matter more than biological links in shaping relationships.
What are blended families?
What are common challenges in blended or adoptive families?
What family function is closely related to reproduction and socialization?
Social placement.
What is social placement?
The process by which families determine the social roles and statuses their children will occupy in society.
What types of statuses are ascribed at birth?
How does family membership influence achieved statuses like education or occupation?
A person's family and kin network shape access to resources and opportunities that affect these achievements.
What other basic functions does the family perform besides the main five?
How do conflict theorists view the family compared to functionalists?
They see the family as a system of inequality and power struggle rather than harmony and balance.
According to conflict theory, what causes tension within families?
How do conflict theorists view marriage and parenthood?
What did Friedrich Engels (1902) argue about the family in capitalist society?
How do feminist theories expand on conflict theory?
According to Marxist-feminist theory, what happens when women unite over shared interests?
What does conflict theory say about change within the family?
What does conflict theory assume about economic organization and family life?
What is the concept of sexual property?
In patriarchal societies, how does sexual property typically appear?
How far back does the history of male dominance and ownership of women extend?
What did ancient Hebrew law require if a man had sexual relations with an unbetrothed virgin?
What were cultural reasons for guarding women in many societies?
What customs reflect the historical idea of women as property?
Until when could U.S. women legally be denied credit based on gender?
Until the Equal Credit Opportunity Act of 1974
How does conflict theory explain male domination?
How do women exercise power in traditional relationships according to conflict theory?
By giving or withholding sex within marriage
What happens to a woman's power when she bears children according to conflict theory?
Her power declines as she becomes more confined to domestic roles with less access to education and income
What does conflict theory suggest about shifts in power dynamics?
Power and domination change as access to economic and occupational resources shifts
How has women's bargaining position in modern industrialized nations changed?
Greater equality due to fewer children, higher employment, and less economic dependence on husbands
What factors contribute to conflict in families besides gender inequality?
What often underlies familial conflicts according to conflict theory?
Inequality of power, authority, or resources rather than personality differences
What can help in resolving troubled relationships according to conflict theorists?
Adjusting the balance of power between partners instead of focusing only on personality
What does the exchange perspective say about human interactions?
They are social exchanges where people weigh rewards and costs
According to exchange theory, when will people view a relationship as unsatisfactory?
When the exchange is unequal and one partner controls the relationship
How does the exchange theory apply to marriage?
Marriage is an exchange of what each partner offers, e.g. - Money - Status - Affection
What is the difference between arranged and self-chosen marriages under exchange theory?
What is the theory of complementary needs?
What did Robert Winch conclude about mate selection?
Why might a relationship fail according to complementary needs theory?
How did Willard Waller (1938) view courtship?
According to Waller's exchange theory, what do people aim to do in mate selection?
What happens when exchanges are unequal in a relationship?
How can exchange theory help troubled marriages?
What does the interactionist perspective focus on when studying families?
How does the interactionist perspective view marriage?
According to the interactionist view, what defines a good marital adjustment?
What do individuals bring to marriage that can cause conflict?
What happens when spouses fail to meet each other's role expectations?
How have modern marital roles changed according to interactionists?
What central idea from symbolic interactionism is reflected in marriage?
Shared meanings, role-taking, and symbolic communication shape how partners understand and perform roles.
What do interactionists emphasize as most important in family relationships?
The ongoing negotiation of shared definitions, expectations, and perspectives between partners.
What helps prevent conflict in marriages according to the interactionist perspective?
Shared meanings and expectations between spouses.
When might disagreements not lead to conflict in marriage?
When the issue is considered unimportant or when partners accept each other's behaviors and definitions.
What must married couples continually do to maintain a satisfying relationship?
Redefine themselves in relation to each other, often unconsciously.
How can marriage counseling help from an interactionist viewpoint?
Make unconscious definitions and expectations conscious so couples can better understand their influence on each other.
What does the interactionist perspective emphasize about marital success?
That it requires continual adjustment and adaptation to shifts in shared meanings.
Why is the interactionist perspective especially useful for marital therapy?
It helps clinicians see that family members' behaviors depend on how they interpret one another's actions.
What can clinicians do using the interactionist approach?
Help family members clarify intentions and understand how each defines others' actions.
What does the developmental perspective on the family propose?
Families progress through a life cycle with stages of changing roles, responsibilities, and tasks.
Why is success in each family life stage important?
Failure in earlier stages makes later stages more difficult to navigate successfully.
What does the first stage of the family life cycle typically involve?
How can the first stage differ for some couples?
It varies for teenage, interracial, or second marriages, and for couples who lived together before marriage.
How many stages are commonly identified in the family life cycle?
Typically seven stages; transitions often based on the age of the oldest child.
What happens during stage two of the family life cycle?
What family change occurs in stage two?
Shift from a dyad (couple) to a triad (parents and child).
What is the main focus of stage three of the family life cycle?
Education and socialization of children as they enter school and approach adolescence.
What new challenges arise in stage three?
How can major life events modify stage three responsibilities?
Events like additional children, job loss, or divorce can alter family roles and dynamics.
What characterizes stage four of the family life cycle?
Families with adolescents; increased economic pressures and social issues such as drugs, fashion, and peer culture.
What is the key task of stage four families?
Preparing teenagers to become independent and eventually leave home.
What is stage five called in the family life cycle?
The launching stage, when the oldest child leaves home for college, work, or marriage.
What transition occurs in stage five?
What is stage six known as?
The 'empty-nest stage', when all children have left home and parents readjust to life as a couple.
What challenges may arise during the empty-nest stage?
What defines the seventh and final stage of the family life cycle?
Retirement and the eventual death of one or both spouses, ending that family's cycle.
Why do women often outlive men in heterosexual marriages?
What pattern did Olson and McCubbin (1983) find in family satisfaction?
Why does marital satisfaction often increase after the launching stage?
What are the main characteristics of the U.S. family system?
How do U.S. families compare to those in other countries?
What trend is seen in marital and family roles in the U.S.?
What factors are emphasized in U.S. mate selection?
How easily is divorce granted in the U.S.?
As of 2017, what percentage of adults were married in the U.S.?
What percentage of men and women were divorced in the U.S. in 2017?
Which age group is divorce most concentrated in?
What happens to the marriage rate during economic recessions and prosperous periods?
How do wars influence marriage rates?
What was the average U.S. marriage rate before 1900?
What happened to marriage rates during the Great Depression?
What caused marriage rates to rise dramatically at the start of World War II?
Many men married before going to war or to gain the social benefits of married status.
What happened to U.S. marriage rates in 1946?
They surged to a historic peak of \(16.4\) marriages per \(1{,}000\) people in \(1946\).
How have U.S. marriage rates changed since 1970?
They have steadily declined since \(1970\), reaching \(6.8\) per \(1{,}000\) in \(2009\) and \(6.9\) per \(1{,}000\) in \(2016\).
Which month has the highest number of marriages in the U.S.?
Which months have the fewest marriages in the U.S.?
What is the most and least popular day for weddings?
How can businesses related to marriage use sociological statistics?
Why might a travel agent care about marriage trends?
To target honeymoon packages and promotions toward young couples during peak marriage months.
What example does the text give for applying marriage trend data?
A travel agent could decorate showrooms with young couples and offer low-priced honeymoon packages in October.
How can marriage statistics help a travel agent with advertising timing?
By knowing peak months, agents can advertise during preceding months in magazines popular with young adults.
How can knowledge of marriage trends help someone planning their own wedding?
When are wedding-related services typically more expensive?
During popular wedding months like October, when demand is highest.
What is the typical age difference between spouses in U.S. marriages?
About \(4\) years, with men typically older than women.
How did the median ages at first marriage change between 1900 and 2015?
What trend in marriage age has been observed in recent decades?
How did the percentage of never-married adults aged 25–29 change since 1970?
Why are teenage marriages a concern in the United States?
What often precedes teenage marriages?
How does relationship satisfaction compare when marriage follows childbirth versus precedes it?
What did Fein (2004) find about timing of first births by social class?
What proportion of the least-educated couples had their first child before marriage?
Among Black Americans, when do most first births occur relative to marriage?
What do studies show about people who marry young?
What percentage of U.S. husband-wife households were childless in 2000?
How did the number of childless married households change from 2000 to 2010?
What is the crude birth rate?
What was the U.S. birth rate in 2000, 2010, and 2015?
Why do social scientists find variations in birth rates more meaningful than the rates themselves?
Because significant changes indicate underlying social, economic, or cultural factors worth studying.
What major event caused a rise in the U.S. birth rate in the late 1940s and 1950s?
The 'baby boom' following World War II.
What factors contributed to the 'baby boom'?
According to Bean (1983), what limited family size during the baby boom?
Rising costs discouraged couples from having large families.
How many married couples had four or more children under 18 in 2000?
19.5 million (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010).
What has caused a decrease in unplanned and unwanted births in recent decades?
Why is it hard to predict how abortion laws will affect future birth rates?
Because abortion laws vary by state and shift with political leadership.
How has U.S. family size changed since 1970?
What trend has been observed among women ages 30-35?
The number of single women in that age range has risen rapidly.
How has the percentage of single-parent households with children changed?
Is the rise in single-parent households unique to the U.S.?
No; similar increases in single-parent households have been seen globally.
When does the greatest change in family interaction patterns typically occur?
With the birth of the first child, causing major shifts in roles and behaviors.
What did early writers call the initial stages of parenthood?
A 'crisis' described as a traumatic change forcing couples to reorganize their lives.
How do later studies describe the beginning of parenthood?
It is a period of transition, but not so dramatic that it should be termed a crisis.
What expectation often follows the birth of a first child?
That a second and third child should follow.
How are families with only one child often stereotyped?
Do research findings support stereotypes about only children?
No. Research findings do not support those stereotypes; the descriptions are inaccurate.
What did Blake's research suggest about single children?
What is the dilution hypothesis?
The theory that the more children a family has, the less each child receives in parental attention and resources.
What does the dilution hypothesis suggest about children in large families?
Children in large families receive fewer familial resources like time, energy, and money compared to those in smaller families.
What types of resources are diluted in large families?
How are family size and socioeconomic factors related?
Which religious groups tend to have larger families?
According to Wagner and Schubert (1985), how does child-rearing differ in large families?
What advantages are associated with smaller families?
What risks are higher in large families?
How do large families affect family dynamics?
How has divorce traditionally been viewed in Catholic countries like Ireland and Brazil?
What is the 'triple talaq' practice?
When did most U.S. states begin adopting no-fault divorce laws?
What are no-fault divorces based on?
How does individualism contribute to high U.S. divorce rates?
How does the fading of romantic love affect divorce rates?
How does women's financial independence affect divorce rates?
How do stressful relationships contribute to higher divorce rates?
How does social acceptance influence divorce rates?
How does legal ease affect divorce rates?
Has the divorce rate in the U.S. been increasing or decreasing recently?
Which country had the highest crude divorce rate in 2013?
What were the approximate divorce rates in the U.S., Latvia, Lithuania, and Denmark in 2016?
Which country had the lowest crude divorce rate in 2010?
Which countries also had some of the lowest divorce rates in recent years?
What trend did Portugal experience between 1970 and 2016?
Why do people often say that one in two marriages ends in divorce?
What was the U.S. divorce rate in 2016 using that yearly comparison method?
Why is the yearly divorce rate misleading?
What percentage of marriages end in divorce after 5 years? After 10 years?
What was the U.S. divorce rate per 1,000 people in 2015?
How has the U.S. divorce rate changed since 1979-1981?
How do divorce rates tend to change with economic conditions?
How does geography affect divorce rates in the U.S.?
What factors contribute to the South's higher divorce rate?
Which age group experiences the most divorces?
When is divorce most frequent in a marriage?
How does socioeconomic status affect divorce rates?
Which age group has the highest risk of divorce?
Those who marry as teenagers.
What is a covenant marriage?
A legally binding marriage that limits divorce grounds (e.g., abuse, felony, adultery) to make divorce harder to obtain.
Which states offer the covenant marriage option?
Who primarily supported the covenant marriage movement?
Conservative Christians concerned about rising divorce rates.
What does nonmarital cohabitation mean?
Two unmarried, unrelated adults living together as a couple in an intimate partnership.
Why might nonmarital cohabitation not fit the traditional definition of 'family'?
Because it involves intimacy and shared living without legal or formal ties of marriage.
What policy questions does nonmarital cohabitation raise?
How many unmarried adults were cohabiting with a partner in 2016?
Over 18 million (a 29% increase since 2007).
Which older age group commonly cohabits and how did their rate change?
Adults age 50+; cohabitation rate grew 75% between 2007 and 2017.
How do cohabiting couples compare to married couples regarding social roles?
They tend to mirror society and accept gender roles similar to married couples.
What did Waite et al. (2000) find about cohabitants' commitment?
Nonmarried cohabitants were significantly less committed to marriage than married couples.
How did cohabitants view sexual exclusivity?
Most valued sexual exclusivity and voluntarily limited outside sexual activity.
Is nonmarital cohabitation a substitute for marriage or solution to divorce?
No. Most cohabiting relationships are short-term; longer cohabitation increases chance of marriage.
In heterosexual cohabiting couples, who typically does most of the housework?
Women, similar to traditional married couples.
What problems do unmarried cohabiting couples commonly face?
What are functional values of cohabitation for adults?
What is a childfree marriage?
Why has childfree marriage gained acceptance?
What did Forsyth (1999) find about childfree marriages?
How can childfreeness benefit dual-career marriages?
What defines a one-parent family?
What percentage of black children lived with their mothers only in 2016?
What percentage of children lived with their fathers only in 2016?
How many one-parent families were in the U.S. in 2019?
What percentage of U.S. families are below the poverty level?
Which family type is most affected by poverty?
What challenges do families below the poverty line often face?
What did Bilgé and Kaufman (1983) argue about one-parent families?
How can single-parent families function effectively?
What did Bilgé and Kaufman observe about one-parent, female-headed families worldwide?
What did Cashion (1982) find about emotional adjustment in children from female-headed families?
How did Cashion (1982) compare intellectual development and delinquency rates?
What are the two major problems faced by female-headed families?
How does poverty affect female-headed families?
How does stigmatization affect children in female-headed families?
What was Cashion's overall conclusion about children from female-headed families when not affected by poverty?
In 2016, what percentage of U.S. children lived with their mother only?
How did the 2016 percentage of children living with their mother only vary by race?
What major change occurred since World War II regarding women and work?
What percentage of married women worked outside the home in 1940?
What percentage of married women worked outside the home by 2016?
Are women with children more or less likely to hold jobs than those without children?
Which married women are most likely to be in the labor force?
What are 'dual-employed marriages'?
What is meant by 'dual-career marriage'?
What did Burke and Weir (1976) find about women in two-career families?
How did men in two-career families compare to those in one-career families?
What challenges do dual-career marriages face?
What is the 'time crunch' described by Fox and Nichols (1983)?
How are wives' careers often treated compared to their husbands'?
What is the ongoing challenge in dual-career marriages regarding gender roles?
What is the family's primary social purpose?
What are the smallest family units?
What are families of orientation and procreation?
What is the difference between monogamy and polygamy?
What is sequential monogamy?
Having several spouses in succession, but only one at a time.
What are the main residence patterns for couples?
What is the most common residence pattern worldwide?
Patrilocal residence — living in the groom's community.
What are the main norms of descent?
What are the three family authority types?
Which family authority pattern is most widespread globally?
The patriarchal pattern.
What are endogamous and exogamous marriage rules?
What is nearly universally forbidden across cultures?
According to the functionalist perspective, what are the five major family functions?
What does the conflict perspective focus on in families?
Struggles for power and control due to unequal distribution of resources.
What does the exchange perspective emphasize?
Rewards and costs in all relationships; people seek mates who meet their needs.
What is the complementary needs theory?
The idea that people choose mates whose needs complement their own.
What does the interactionist perspective study?
What does the developmental perspective focus on?
What norms does the U.S. family system emphasize?
How do family systems in the U.S. compare to those in other societies?
What factors cause rates of marriage to vary?
What has happened to the age at marriage in the U.S. since the 1970s?
What variables influence family size and parent-child relationships?
How do modern families differ from earlier generations regarding children?
How does the U.S. compare globally in divorce rates?
What do variations in divorce rates illustrate?
What types of family lifestyles are increasingly common today?
Why are childfree marriages becoming more common?
What is a dual-career marriage?
How do dual-career marriages differ from one-career families?
What does sex refer to?
What does gender refer to?
How does culture traditionally view masculinity?
How does culture traditionally view femininity?
What are gender roles?
Traditionally, what roles have men been expected to fulfill?
Traditionally, what roles have women been expected to fulfill?
What determines gender roles?
How are sex and gender often mistakenly linked?
Can chromosome combinations other than XX or XY occur?
Yes — other combinations exist and can result in ambiguous genitalia or intersex variations.
Why is assigning sex at birth not always accurate?
Because external genitalia may not reflect chromosomal makeup, especially in intersex cases.
What physical similarities exist between children assigned male and female before puberty?
What do physiologists and psychologists study to understand sex differences in behavior?
How prenatal sex hormones affect the central nervous system and behavior.
What does research say about biological predispositions to gendered behavior?
There is no conclusive evidence that people are born with behavior differences based solely on biology.
What did cross-cultural studies show about aggression in boys and girls?
What does current research suggest causes higher aggression in males?
What does 'Social Bases of Gender Differentiation' refer to?
Why should people in nurturing roles understand gender bias?
What is a self-fulfilling prophecy in the context of gender?
How can teachers influence students' gender roles?
How might assuming girls are nonaggressive affect them?
How might assuming boys are naturally analytical affect them?
What did research show about classroom treatment of boys and girls?
How do teachers' interactions with boys and girls differ?
How do children's books reinforce gender stereotypes?
What effects can stereotypical gender representations have on children?
Why has research on gender bias in education become political?
What did Sadker (1999) note about ultraconservative reactions to gender equity research?
How can teachers and parents reduce hidden gender bias?
What is the ultimate goal of addressing gender bias in education?
What happens during adolescence that affects sex differentiation?
What physical difference commonly develops between men and women during adolescence?
Men usually develop more muscular builds, especially in the upper body.
Why might men have greater muscle strength than women?
Higher testosterone levels and more upper-body muscle mass.
What physical traits are women more likely to have?
A higher proportion of body fat, especially around the breasts and hips.
What actually shapes adult gender behavior more—biology or society?
Socialization into gender roles rather than physical differences.
What does cross-cultural research show about gender roles?
They vary widely depending on social norms, not physical traits.
What were women's roles in the Chambri society?
How did Mead describe the Chambri women's personalities?
What did later researchers note about Mead's observations?
What do African societies show about gender roles?
How did European colonization affect African gender roles?
What happened to the Igbo women of Nigeria in 1929?
What was the result of the Igbo women's continued resistance?
How were gender roles in hunting and gathering societies?
What happens to gender-role differentiation as societies grow wealthier?
What question do sociologists ask about modern gender inequality?
What are the two main theories that explain gender differentiation?
What do structural functionalists believe about society?
What roles do functionalists say women have traditionally played?
What are examples of women's expressive functions?
What traditional role is assigned to men in structural functionalism?
What duties were tied to men's instrumental role?
Why are women's traditional roles undervalued economically?
How do functionalists explain the shift of family functions over time?
What is one modern example of traditional family functions shifting outward?
What does the conflict theory of gender differentiation focus on?
How does conflict theory view traditional gender dynamics?
According to conflict theory, how did gender inequality begin historically?
Why were women valued in early societies according to conflict theorists?
How did men ensure control over property and inheritance?
What role did industrialization play in gender inequality?
How did men retain dominance during industrialization?
What kinds of laws limited women's opportunities historically?
How did men's dominance continue legally and socially?
Who else was negatively affected by male dominance, according to conflict theorists?
How did a supply of poorly paid women workers benefit employers?
How do structural functionalism and conflict theory differ in explaining gender?
What does conflict theory predict as societies develop?
How does conflict theory explain men's continued dominance?
Men use wealth and power to maintain higher social positions at women's expense.
Have women always played a role in the economy?
Yes. Women have contributed to home production and the broader workforce throughout history.
What economic roles did women hold in the Middle Ages?
What were guilds in medieval times?
Trade organizations that women could sometimes join to work and learn skilled trades.
How did convents benefit women in the Middle Ages?
Convents offered education, community, and independence; some women became wealthy and influential.
Who were the Beguines?
Unmarried women in 12th-century Low Countries who lived like nuns without vows and could leave or marry anytime.
What industries did women often work in before the Industrial Revolution?
Textiles and other goods produced at home or in small workshops.
How did industrialization affect women's work?
Production moved to factories; women, often poor and single, worked long hours for low pay.
What was one effect of 19th-century protective labor laws?
They limited women's work hours but also reduced their job opportunities.
By the 19th century, what was the main source of well-being for most women?
What opportunities did upper-class women have at the start of the 20th century?
How were working-class women employed in the early 20th century?
How were married working women viewed during the Great Depression?
What happened when World War II began in 1941?
What jobs did women hold during World War II?
What happened to women workers after World War II ended?
What was the 'baby boom'?
Why did women re-enter the workforce in the 1960s?
What was the median income for women working full-time in 2015?
\(40,742\) (about \(79.5\%\) of men's median income of \(51,212\))
In 1960, what percentage of men's income did women earn?
About \(61\%\) (\(16,144\) for women vs. \(26,608\) for men)
When did the gender income gap widen significantly?
During the 1960s and 1970s, as more women entered low-paying jobs
What was the lowest historical point of women's earnings compared to men's?
Around \(56.6\%\) of men's income during the 1970s
Why is the gender pay gap narrowing?
Mainly because men's mean income has decreased, not because full equality has been achieved
Why does the gender pay gap remain a major question for sociologists?
How do smaller salaries affect long-term income?
What is a split labor market?
What kind of jobs are in the primary labor market?
Who typically works in the primary labor market?
What kind of jobs are in the secondary labor market?
Where do most women work in the split labor market?
How does the split labor market contribute to gender inequality?
Why do some women choose 'mother-friendly' jobs?
What trend has occurred in the secondary labor market since the 1980s?
It has grown in size while unions lost power, reducing job security and benefits.
How has automation affected workers in the secondary labor market?
Machines replaced many jobs, leading to more temporary, repetitive, and low-wage work.
What benefits do secondary labor market workers usually lack?
How have global markets affected labor unions?
Power in upper-tier unions declined, while lower-tier unions gained strength to fight unfair practices.
Why are women still disproportionately poor compared to men?
Women are overrepresented in low-paying secondary jobs, often in unstable or outsourced industries.
What happens to jobs in the secondary labor market in developing countries?
Many jobs are moved there to take advantage of cheaper labor, often exploiting rural women.
What additional challenges do women in some Asian countries face when leaving home for work?
They may be viewed as less respectable or struggle to find marriage opportunities afterward.
Is it illegal to pay someone less because of gender?
Yes, gender-based pay discrimination is illegal, but it is not illegal to pay less for jobs considered low prestige.
What question does the concept of comparable worth address?
Whether jobs held mostly by women are paid less simply because they are female-dominated.
What is the main claim of Paula England's 'Comparable Worth' (1992)?
Give an example of unequal pay between male- and female-dominated jobs.
What does 'comparable worth' mean?
Why has the idea of comparable worth faced resistance?
What barrier do women face when trying to reach top positions?
What percentage of board seats did women hold in 2013?
What trend has been observed in women's corporate advancement?
What percentage of corporate officers in Fortune 500 companies were women in 1995, 2005, and 2009?
Has the number of women vice presidents or higher increased recently?
How do salaries of women CEOs compare to men's?
Between 2010 and 2017, in how many years did women CEOs earn more than men?
What was the median compensation for female and male CEOs in 2017?
What was the highest annual compensation for a female CEO in 2017 and who received it?
What was the highest annual compensation for a male CEO in 2017 and who received it?
What does upward mobility refer to?
The ability to rise to higher positions within an organization or society.
What two types of experience increase earnings and help reach executive positions?
What does authority mean in the workplace?
Having supervisory experience and making decisions in a leadership role.
What does autonomy mean on the job?
Having control over how one's work is done and making independent choices about tasks.
Why is autonomy considered more desirable than authority?
People who control how they work are more committed and satisfied than those told what to do.
Historically, why have women had less authority and autonomy at work?
Because they've worked mainly in female-dominated jobs like nursing and teaching, which rarely provide either.
What pattern occurs when men enter female-dominated jobs?
They advance more quickly and gain authority faster than women in the same fields.
In mixed-gender occupations, who is more likely to get positions with both authority and autonomy?
Men are still more likely, even when education and experience are equal.
What kind of work do women carry the greatest burden in, according to sociologists?
What happens when women enter the workforce full-time?
Why do many working mothers reduce or pause their careers?
How does unfair division of household labor affect marriages?
What most influences wives' satisfaction with housework?
Is unequal division of housework only a U.S. issue?
How does sharing housework affect relationships?
Do working women spend less time on housework than nonworking women?
What happens to women's household workload when children are young?
According to Salary.com, how much would a stay-at-home mom earn per year (2018)?
What is the women's movement?
Efforts by women to gain political and economic power; active for over a century in Europe and the United States.
How do women's movements in Europe and the U.S. differ?
They share the goal of equality but have emphasized different aspects of women's rights.
Why has the movement avoided aligning with political parties or unions?
To prevent division among women and maintain unity around equality.
What internal division has the women's movement faced?
Conflict between advocating workplace equality and supporting women as homemakers.
How do working mothers in the U.S. compare to those in Europe?
They receive fewer benefits and less support for balancing work and family.
What rights have women in the U.S. gained through the movement?
What was one major victory of the women's suffrage movement?
Gaining the right to vote in the 1920s.
What is the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA)?
A proposed U.S. constitutional amendment to guarantee equal legal rights regardless of sex.
What does the ERA state?
Why was the ERA's failure disappointing to the women's movement?
What difficulties do U.S. women still face despite progress?
How do European women's social benefits compare to U.S. women?
What have women's movements in Sweden and France focused on?
Why do European women's movements emphasize better pay and benefits?
How have European women's movements achieved success?
What parental leave benefits exist in Sweden?
What childcare benefits does Sweden provide?
What maternity benefits do Austrian women receive?
How does Austria's maternity leave compare to Sweden's?
What child-related tax benefit exists in the U.S.?
What additional support do European countries offer compared to the U.S.?
What is the most obvious result of gender inequality in the United States?
What major issues are discussed under the consequences of gender inequality?
What amendment is often associated with attempts to ensure gender equality in the U.S.?
What would the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) guarantee if ratified?
What percentage of women who were heads of families lived below the poverty line in 2015?
What is the term for the growing number of women who head poor families?
How do children affect a mother's economic situation?
What kind of jobs are often available to poor single mothers?
What is the 'fragile family'?
Why do single mothers in fragile families face hardship?
How does widowhood contribute to poverty among older women?
Why do older women outnumber older poor men?
When were no-fault divorce laws first introduced in the U.S.?
Why can no-fault divorces lead to poverty for women?
How does a woman's standard of living typically change after divorce?
Why do many women have low self-esteem about homemaking and motherhood?
What theory did Gove and Geerken propose about women's stress?
Which study tested stress differences between U.S. and Mexican women?
What did the U.S.-Mexico self-esteem study find?
What did Cotten (1999) find about women's stress compared to men's?
What did Garima and Kiran (2014) discover in India?
Being married negatively affected the mental health of working women.
Which aspect of self-esteem do many women in the U.S. struggle with?
Their physical appearance and body image.
Why do many women experience body image stress?
What serious effects can body dissatisfaction cause?
Do body image concerns affect only women?
No; studies show men — especially in Australia — also struggle with body image and self-esteem.
How do cultural values affect body image?
Cultural values and social expectations shape how men and women view body image and self-worth.
How common is depression among women compared to men in the U.S.?
Which groups of women are most at risk for depression?
How do physicians typically treat men and women differently?
What bias exists in the cardiology system for women?
What does research suggest about overall health care for women?
What unnecessary reproductive procedures are often performed on women?
How does women's medical spending compare to men's?
Why is the high rate of uninsured women in the U.S. concerning?
What are common psychological effects of hysterectomy for many women?
Which reproductive technologies have gained attention in recent years?
What possible outcome can result from detecting serious fetal defects via amniocentesis?
How do women often feel after an abortion according to research?
What consequences can women face for rejecting sexual advances at work?
What percentage of working women report personal experience of sexual harassment?
Where is sexual harassment also a major problem besides workplaces?
Why is sexual harassment difficult to eliminate?
What is family violence?
What percentage of U.S. women experience intimate-partner-related violence in their lifetime?
What percentage of women worldwide have experienced violence in an intimate relationship?
About \(30\%\) worldwide
Why do many abused women stay in violent homes?
What makes it difficult for women to leave abusive environments?
How many women are estimated to be battered each year by their husbands or lovers?
\(\approx 4\ \text{million}\) women per year
How many people in the U.S. have experienced forced sex?
What percentage of female college students report having been raped?
\(20\% - 25\%\) of female college students.
How much higher are actual rape rates compared to reported ones?
Actual rates are about \(2\)–\(3\) times higher than official statistics.
What percentage of sexual assault victims on college campuses do not report the assault?
About \(90\%\) of campus sexual assault victims do not report.
What often motivates rape when committed by men?
Often aggression and desire for power, not sexual desire.
Why do some men commit rape?
Why is the victim often blamed in rape cases?
What happens to a victim's reputation during a rape trial?
What have some feminists argued about causes of rape and violence?
How does pornography contribute to aggression toward women, according to critics?
What message does media objectification of women send?
What societal condition fosters violence between sexes?
What do structural functionalists predict about the future of gender inequality?
What evidence supports that women's status is improving?
What does the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics say about women's earnings?
What combination of theories predicts continued inequality?
How might class affect future gender equality?
What is likely to happen to working-class women in the labor market?
What overall trend is predicted for gender differentiation?
What do modern societies use to differentiate people?
Do biological sex differences explain behavioral differences between men and women?
How do gender roles differ across cultures?
What do structural functionalists say about gender roles?
How do conflict theorists view gender inequality?
Why were women encouraged to marry and have babies?
What kinds of jobs do most women enter when they join the workforce?
Are women paid equally for jobs requiring comparable skills?
Why is upward mobility limited for women?
How does family responsibility affect women's health?
What did women's movements in Europe focus on?
What did the U.S. women's movement emphasize?
What financial disadvantage exists in no-fault divorces for women?
Why do some women in the U.S. have low self-esteem?
Why do women often get less adequate healthcare?
Who is more likely to experience violence, men or women?
What is one prediction about the future of gender inequality?
According to Genesis 2:18, why did God create woman?
What key event is described in Genesis 3:6 regarding the Fall?
What differential consequence for women is stated in Genesis 3:16?
What differential consequence for men is given in Genesis 3:17–19?
How is creation framed in terms of gender roles in the notes?
Man and woman were differentially created with complementary roles.
Which long-form report is cited as a resource on sexuality and gender?
Sexuality and Gender (2016) from The New Atlantis
Which source lists 2022 statistics on women in the workforce (roles & pay gap)?
TeamStage — 'Women in the Workforce Statistics 2022' article
Which article is cited about women CEOs in the Fortune 500?
A 2019 CNN report on women CEOs in the Fortune 500
What do societies generally expect from people of different ages?
Different behaviors in dress, music, leisure, sex, and work depending on age
Why do many individuals not look forward to growing old?
Because they associate attractiveness, health, and productivity with youth
What societal concerns arise from an increasing aged population?
According to Ekman et al. (2001), what transportation trend was observed among the elderly in Sweden?
The bicycle became a common means of transport for people aged 65 or older
How much greater was the risk of dying from bicycling for the elderly compared to children 14 or under?
About 3.7 times greater
How much greater was bicycling death risk for the elderly compared to the average bicyclist?
About 3 times greater, rising to as much as 6 times for ages 75–84
According to Ekman et al. (2001), why has society neglected elderly bicyclist safety?
Because decision makers tend to focus on the relatively young
What solution did Ekman et al. (2001) suggest regarding rising elderly bicycling injuries?
Greater interest and intervention to ameliorate or prevent the problem
What type of status is age considered to be?
An ascribed status over which individuals have no choice or control.
What are examples of age norms in behavior?
How do social timetables influence expectations about age?
They indicate whether people are 'on schedule' for life events like finishing school, marrying, or retiring.
What does variation in age norms among societies show?
Ideas about appropriate behavior for the aged differ widely across cultures.
Give an example of cultural variation in views about aging.
What is aging?
A broad concept involving biological, psychological, and social changes as people grow older.
What is biological aging?
Physical changes in the body, e.g., wrinkles, gray hair, hormonal shifts, and system changes like in the nervous or immune systems.
What is psychological aging?
Mental changes such as learning, thinking, remembering, and emotional functioning.
What is social aging?
Changes in social roles and relationships over the life course, such as marriage, work, and retirement.
What does the life course refer to?
The age-related progression of social roles and group memberships throughout life.
What does the life course concept emphasize?
Who are considered the aged?
What is gerontology?
What is social gerontology?
What are stereotypes about the aged?
What is ageism?
According to Carolyn Wilken (2002), what are common myths about old age?
What is the myth about senility and old age?
Why is it harmful to believe myths about the elderly?
What can happen if older adults believe they have no potential for growth?
How do age-related changes in learning ability compare to common beliefs?
Are most older adults lonely?
No. Many maintain stable friendships and close family ties throughout life.
What percentage of older parents see or communicate with their children frequently?
About 80% see one or more of their children every week or two.
Do most elderly people have health problems that limit daily activities?
No. Most people over 65 report good to excellent health and can perform routine activities.
What is the common myth about elderly victimization?
That older people are more likely victims of crime, when their victimization rates are actually lower than others'.
Who poses a greater risk to older adults than strangers?
Family members or caregivers who may exploit or steal from them.
Are most elderly people poor?
No. Most are not at the poverty level due to Social Security, pensions, savings, and home ownership.
How did Social Security change elderly poverty rates?
It reduced elderly poverty from one-third before its implementation to about 1 in 10 today.
Do people generally become more religious as they age?
Not generally; most people's religious views remain stable throughout life.
Why might some elderly adults participate less in organized religious activities?
Mobility issues, though many engage in private religious activities instead.
Are older workers less productive than younger workers?
No. They often remain productive, motivated, and valuable mentors.
How do older workers contribute to society?
Many make significant achievements in their seventh and eighth decades of life.
Do all old people experience a decline in health after retirement?
No. Many remain healthy and active well into old age.
Is there evidence that people's health rapidly declines after retirement?
No. Studies show most retirees remain healthy and productive for many years after retiring.
How long can people in the U.S. now expect to live past retirement age?
Well over a decade, with much of that time spent in good health.
What is the myth about sexual disinterest or incapacity in old age?
That older people have no interest in or capacity for sexual relations.
What have studies shown about sexuality in late life?
Sexual response and interest can continue throughout life; sexual disorders can be reversible.
How do most elderly people use nursing homes or long-term care facilities?
As temporary rehabilitation centers for recovery after illness or injury.
How can myths about aging affect treatment of the elderly?
They can lead to discrimination and insensitive treatment by families, caregivers, and society.
What overall message does the text give about aging and prejudice?
Discrimination against the aged harms everyone; recognizing the potential and dignity of older adults benefits all.
What is the focus of the demographic study of aging in sociology?
Examining how population numbers, characteristics, and age structures change and affect societies.
Why is the aging population significant in industrialized nations?
Because the large number of elderly people is unprecedented in world history.
What two categories do gerontologists often use to describe the elderly?
How much is the population of people age 65 and older expected to grow between 2015 and 2060?
Projected to double from 48 million to nearly 100 million.
What is the projected U.S. population of people age 65 and over in 2030, 2040, and 2050?
How is the population of people age 80 and over expected to change by 2050?
Which country had the largest number of people age 65 and older as of 2012?
Which country had the highest old-age dependency ratio as of 2012?
What is the dependency ratio?
How is the dependency ratio calculated?
What is the old-age dependency ratio?
How is the total dependency ratio expected to change between 2020 and 2050?
What is the expected change in the old-age dependency ratio from 2020 to 2050?
What major factor contributes to the rise in the old-age dependency ratio?
What effect does a lower birth rate have on society's ability to support the elderly?
How much did the number of centenarians in the U.S. increase between 2010 and 2014?
What is life expectancy?
What does life expectancy at birth measure?
What was the estimated life expectancy at birth in most industrialized countries as of 2017?
How does life expectancy differ between industrialized and developing countries?
In developing countries life expectancy at birth can be less than 60 years.
How does life expectancy in the U.S. vary by gender and race (born 2014)?
Why does life expectancy increase as we get older?
Because surviving earlier life risks changes the expected remaining years of life.
What factors influence life expectancy over time?
How has life expectancy changed compared to the human life span?
Life expectancy has increased significantly, while the human life span has remained virtually unchanged (~115 years).
What average maximum human life span did Albert Einstein College of Medicine scientists report?
115 years
What do most biologists believe about extending the human life span?
Most biologists see no major scientific breakthrough likely to extend the human life span in the near future.
What is the difference between life expectancy and life span?
How do elderly men and women differ in marital status?
What is the most dramatic marital-status difference between elderly men and women?
In 2015, how many widows and widowers were there among people over 65?
Why are there more elderly widows than widowers?
Who is more likely to remarry after losing a spouse?
What percentage of the elderly population is institutionalized in nursing homes or long-term care?
Where are elderly people in the U.S. most concentrated?
Which states had the largest elderly populations as of 2018?
Which state has the smallest elderly population?
Which state has the highest proportion of elderly residents?
Which region saw the largest increase in elderly population between 1995 and 2010?
Why do politicians need to understand the demographics of aging?
What are some major organizations representing older adults in the U.S.?
How large is the AARP membership?
What do organizations like AARP focus on improving?
Why must politicians pay attention to elderly voters?
Why should business leaders be aware of aging demographics?
How does an aging population affect advertising?
Why should community planners consider elderly demographics?
What types of facilities might planners include for an aging population?
How can understanding aging demographics be useful personally?
How might the growing elderly population affect future costs and competition?
What do sociologists study when examining theories of aging?
What do biological theories of aging focus on?
What do social theories of aging explain that biological theories do not?
What does structural functionalism study in relation to aging?
According to the functionalist perspective, what should societies provide for all citizens, including the elderly?
What does modernization theory propose about aging?
With modernization, the social status and influence of older people decline.
Which factors contribute to the decline in status of older adults according to modernization theory?
How does scientific technology affect the elderly in modernization theory?
It creates new jobs primarily for the young, leaving the elderly in traditional roles that become obsolete.
What effect does urbanization have on older adults?
It separates younger and older generations, reducing the elderly's influence and leadership roles.
How does mass education contribute to modernization's impact on the elderly?
It benefits younger people with new skills and literacy, allowing them to take high-status positions once held by elders.
What effect has health technology had on aging populations?
Overall, what does modernization theory suggest about the elderly's position in society?
They experience a decline in economic power, prestige, and leadership as modernization advances.
What do critics argue about modernization theory?
Modernization is a vague and nonlinear process; the elderly may be affected differently across cultures and stages.
What evidence contradicts modernization theory?
In Japan, the elderly have maintained high prestige and respect despite industrialization.
What does disengagement theory propose?
As people age, they gradually withdraw from social roles and relationships, preparing for the end of life.
Why is gradual withdrawal considered functional according to disengagement theory?
It allows both society and the elderly to adjust smoothly to role transitions and prevent social disruption.
How does disengagement theory view society's role in helping older adults?
Why is disengagement theory now considered outdated?
Evidence shows most elderly do not want to withdraw and find satisfaction in remaining active.
What did Robert Atchley (1991) argue about disengagement?
Disengagement is often imposed on older adults by lack of opportunities or poor health, not chosen voluntarily.
What is a main criticism of disengagement theory?
It assumes withdrawal is natural or desirable, while most older adults prefer continued social involvement.
What does symbolic interaction theory focus on in relation to aging?
How people define themselves, interpret life events, and find meaning in aging through social interactions and relationships.
What is the activity theory of aging?
The most well-adjusted elderly are those who remain socially and physically active.
How does activity theory differ from disengagement theory?
What activities does activity theory recommend for older adults?
According to Lemon's research, which type of activity is most related to life satisfaction in the elderly?
Informal activity, such as interaction with friends, relatives, and neighbors.
Which types of activities were not significantly related to life satisfaction in Lemon's study?
What are some limitations of activity theory?
What questionable assumption does activity theory make?
What do psychologists and sociologists agree is not enough for a satisfying life?
What is the ongoing debate between disengagement and activity theorists?
How is activity theory now viewed in modern sociology?
What does social exchange theory suggest about human interactions?
How does Dowd apply exchange theory to aging?
Why do older adults have less bargaining power according to Dowd?
How does Dowd explain withdrawal from social roles in old age?
Why are even financially stable and healthy elderly disadvantaged in exchange relationships?
What does conflict theory of aging emphasize?
Why are older people treated unfairly in the job market, according to conflict theory?
How might younger workers contribute to age inequality, according to conflict theorists?
They may support policies that force older workers to retire to preserve their own job opportunities.
What happens to elderly people without income, according to conflict theory?
They lose power and are unable to resist negative stereotypes or discrimination.
What impact do negative perceptions of aging have on the elderly?
They justify denying older adults equal access to jobs, wages, housing, and resources.
What positive outcome do conflict theorists see in aging controversies?
They raise awareness of aging as a social issue and motivate collective action for reform.
What organizations have worked to improve the social standing of the elderly?
Who founded the Gray Panthers, and for what purpose?
Margaret Kuhn founded the Gray Panthers in the early 1970s to promote the rights of the elderly.
What do conflict theorists view as essential for improving conditions for older adults?
What are some main issues faced by the elderly in the United States?
Why is retirement considered a modern phenomenon?
Historically, few people lived long enough for retirement to be a social concern.
In which societies is retirement still uncommon today?
In agrarian societies, where there is little paid employment to retire from.
When did retirement become a significant issue in Japan?
In the mid-1900s, when life expectancy rose to about 60-65 years.
What was Japan's traditional retirement policy?
How did Japan's increasing life expectancy affect retirement policy?
It created pressure to raise the retirement age because the number of retirees grew.
What change did Japan make to address its labor and retirement challenges?
The government raised the retirement age from 55 to 60.
What caused discontent among older Japanese workers?
What are 'Silver Talent Centers' in Japan?
What kinds of jobs do retirees perform through Silver Talent Centers?
What benefits do Silver Talent Centers offer retirees?
What broader factors influence issues of aging besides demographics?
Why is raising the work age limit considered important in Japan?
How can opportunities for elderly contributions benefit society?
When is retirement most problematic for individuals?
How is voluntary retirement often viewed?
What does retirement of any kind require?
When did the issue of mandatory retirement first arise in the U.S.?
Why do critics argue that mandatory retirement is discriminatory?
What is an argument for mandatory retirement?
What does having a set retirement age emphasize?
What are the three stages of the retirement process (Atchley)?
What happens during the preretirement stage?
What occurs during the retirement transition stage?
What defines the post-retirement stage?
What are the five stages of retirement adjustment (Atchley)?
What happens during the honeymoon stage of retirement?
What characterizes the disenchantment stage?
What defines the stability stage of retirement?
What did Atchley find about women's retirement patterns?
How did retirement affect life satisfaction in Atchley's study?
How did retirement affect activity levels for men and women?
What activities did retirees commonly engage in?
Which factors were linked to higher life satisfaction after retirement?
How does physical activity influence satisfaction in retirement?
What did Reitzes, Mutran, and McDonald confirm about Atchley's conclusions?
How do elderly lifestyles compare to other adults?
Why do middle-class elderly often leave suburban homes?
Where do many middle-class retirees move?
What advantages do retirement villages offer?
Where do some elderly prefer to retire instead of age-segregated communities?
What housing options are common for the elderly poor?
Why might rural elderly move to the city?
What challenges do the elderly poor face?
How do poverty rates among the elderly compare to the rest of the population?
What percentage of elderly householders were below the poverty line in 2009?
\(8.9\%\) (down from \(9.7\%\) in 2007)
How did 2017 median income vary by race among elderly people?
What misconception about elderly poverty did David Cheal (1983) note?
That most elderly people in North America are poorer than they actually are
What helps many elderly people maintain a good standard of living despite lower incomes?
Home ownership and accumulated assets
How does gift giving relate to elderly finances, according to Cheal?
Older adults often give more financial aid to relatives than they receive
What happens to Social Security benefits if retirees continue to work?
Benefits may be reduced or eliminated
What program assists retirees who don't qualify for Social Security?
Supplemental Security Income (SSI)
How much did SSI benefits increase from 2000 to 2019?
From \(513\) per month in 2000 to \(771\) per month in 2019
When and why was the U.S. Social Security program created?
During the 1930s Depression to support unemployed citizens
What was the original purpose of Social Security?
To supplement retirement income, not to fully provide it
Why is the future of Social Security a concern?
Growing number of retirees raises costs and may reduce benefits
Why do people in lower-paying jobs receive lower Social Security benefits?
Smaller salaries and many low-paying jobs lack pensions
What financial problem do retirees from low-paying jobs often face?
Poverty, even when receiving SSI
Can a married person receive part of their spouse's Social Security benefits?
Yes; but the spouse's company pension usually stops after the spouse dies
Why do women often receive lower Social Security benefits than men?
What myth about aging and health is discussed?
What percentage of people over age 65 rated their health positively between 2012 and 2014?
What racial differences exist in elderly health ratings?
How do most older adults perceive their age group?
What are the leading chronic diseases among the elderly?
Why is chronic disease a major concern for the elderly?
Why do senior citizens account for a disproportionate share of health care costs?
What was the average annual health-care cost per person age 65 and older in 2010?
What percentage of elderly medical expenses do Medicare and Medicaid typically cover?
What are some limitations of Medicare coverage?
What is pauperization in relation to Medicaid?
What factors compound the health-care problems of the elderly?
What percentage of people over 65 suffer from some form of depression?
How can quality of life be improved for senile dementia patients?
How many elderly people worldwide are expected to suffer from mental illness by 2030?
What is Alzheimer's disease?
What percentage of people with Alzheimer's are age 65 or older?
How many people are projected to have Alzheimer's by 2050?
What are common symptoms of Alzheimer's disease?
Which group has the highest suicide risk in late life?
Why are suicide rates in late life higher for men than women?
How are women better able to cope with retirement compared to men?
Which sociologist's theory links social integration to suicide among the elderly?
Émile Durkheim's theory connecting social integration to mental health and suicide
What is one of the newest recognized social problems concerning the elderly?
When did elder abuse begin receiving serious attention from researchers and policymakers?
In the late 1970s
What is the most common form of elder abuse?
Passive neglect — failing to provide adequate care, food, or clothing
What is active neglect?
When caregivers intentionally withhold care or social contact, deceive, or physically restrain elders
What are examples of active neglect?
What can cause caregivers to abuse elderly dependents?
Who are the most common victims of elder abuse?
Older women, especially those over 75, frail, or disabled
Who are the most common abusers of the elderly?
Adult children or family members under stress or struggling with alcoholism or unemployment
What types of mistreatment fall under physical abuse?
How are the elderly similar to abused children in their vulnerability?
Where does elder abuse most often occur?
Why is it unlikely that major government programs will address elder abuse?
What kinds of voluntary services support elderly victims of abuse?
What is needed to improve prevention of elder abuse?
What are some key factors in preparing for old age?
What is 'death and dying' as a sociological topic?
Why is awareness of death important to living?
What role does socialization play in dying?
How do social institutions influence how we think about dying?
What social influences affect death practices?
Who provides the main support for the elderly in illness?
Why is there a gap between preferred and actual place of death?
What percentage of cancer patients can currently die at home due to limited palliative care?
What is the hospice movement?
How is hospice care different from hospital care?
Who is involved in hospice care teams?
What features do hospice programs offer families?
Why are hospice programs often limited in availability?
What is euthanasia?
What is passive euthanasia?
What is active euthanasia?
Taking direct action to intentionally end a person's life, often at the person's or family's request.
Who was Dr. Jack Kevorkian and why is he significant?
What is the key ethical question around euthanasia?
Whether individuals have the right to end their own lives or receive help to avoid unbearable suffering.
How is the euthanasia debate connected to aging?
Elderly people face more terminal illnesses, making euthanasia a more immediate concern for them.
What social challenge does the growing elderly population create?
Creating systems that support long, active lives with dignity and provide care when people are no longer self-sufficient.
How does society differentiate behavior by age?
Age is an ascribed status with social expectations for behavior at different life stages.
What are age norms?
Social expectations for behaviors considered appropriate for specific age groups.
What are common myths about the elderly?
What is the difference between the 'young-old' and the 'old-old'?
What is the old-age dependency ratio?
The ratio of nonworking elderly people to the working-age population.
What are key social characteristics of the elderly?
What does modernization theory say about aging?
The status of the elderly declines with modernization.
What does activity theory suggest?
Remaining active through work, hobbies, and social interaction leads to better adjustment in old age.
What does social exchange theory focus on regarding aging?
The elderly's decreasing power as they depend more on others, leading to inequality and potential exploitation.
What is conflict theory's view of aging?
Aging reflects broader social inequality — the elderly are disadvantaged in jobs, wages, and resources.
What is the main source of income for elderly Americans?
Social Security; supplemented by SSI for those with minimal income.
How do income and class affect health in old age?
Wealthier elderly have better health; poorer elderly face chronic illness and high medical costs.
What is the most common chronic disease among the elderly?
Hypertension; followed by heart disease, arthritis, and diabetes.
What is elder abuse?
Physical, emotional, or neglectful mistreatment of older adults, often by caregivers in their own homes.
What is a hospice?
A therapeutic environment providing compassionate care and family interaction for the terminally ill.
What is euthanasia?
Which Bible verse sets a limit on human lifespan to 120 years?
What does the graying of America refer to?
How does the AMA Code of Medical Ethics define euthanasia?
Why does the AMA say euthanasia should not be permitted?
What does the Social Security Administration Life Expectancy Calculator provide?
What is Healthy Life Expectancy at Age 60?
What does the Structural Functional Theory emphasize about aging?
What does the Symbolic Interaction Theory focus on in aging?
It studies how individuals define their roles and self-concepts in old age through social interaction and relationships.
What ethical issue does the Death and Dying section highlight?
Whether euthanasia should be allowed as a compassionate option for terminally ill patients suffering from incurable pain.
Why is the family essential to understanding society and social life?
The family is a universal social arrangement central to individual development and society's functioning.
In sociology, what three ways is the family viewed?
Why is the family considered a primary social group?
It serves as the first agency of socialization for individuals.
Why do sociologists consider the family a social system?
Why is the family considered a social institution?
It organizes an area of social life into patterns that help meet essential societal goals.
How are families interdependent with society?
Family behaviors such as childbearing, employment, and living arrangements affect education, the economy, and social services.
What can influence societal issues like Social Security and workforce size over generations?
The average number of children families have.
What practical issues complicate defining 'family'?
What can result from narrow legal definitions of 'family'?
How does the US Census define a family?
Two or more people related by birth, marriage, or adoption who share a common residence.
What additional element do scholars often include in the definition of family?
Which nontraditional family forms do many scholars include beyond the US Census?
What does the traditional definition of family emphasize?
What does the nontraditional definition of family emphasize?
How do sociologists decide some cohabiting couples are recognized as families?
What are nuclear families?
How do nuclear and conjugal families differ?
Which definition of family does the US Census use for reporting?
How is a family household identified in Census reporting?
In 2018, what percentage of US family households were husband-and-wife families?
In 2018, how many single-parent households were led by males versus females?
What trend occurred in the number of family households in the US between 2000 and 2010?
How did the percentage of family households change from 2000 to 2010?
How much did unmarried couple households change from 2000 to 2012?
What percentage of adults aged 25+ have never been married?
What is a family of orientation?
What is a family of procreation?
What is an extended family?
Which family type is considered the norm in most societies?
How are nuclear and conjugal families related to orientation and procreation?
Is the typical family in the United States nuclear or extended?
What is a modified extended family structure?
How do modified extended families differ from traditional extended families?
Why is it important to recognize multiple definitions of 'family'?
Because there is no single acceptable definition; recognizing variety helps avoid ethnocentrism, stereotypes, and research bias.
What major obstacle does Arlene Skolnick identify in studying families?
The tendency for people to use their own family experiences as the basis for generalizations about all families.
Why must social scientists recognize the variety of family patterns?
To overcome ethnocentrism, stereotypes, and prejudices that hinder objective research.
Why should politicians understand varying definitions of 'family'?
Because family definitions affect how policies such as zoning, tax laws, and welfare are implemented.
How can limiting the definition of 'family' affect people's lives?
It can have serious social and legal consequences, e.g. who qualifies under zoning or benefits laws.
What assumption can create problems for policymakers?
Assuming families fit only the middle-class nuclear model of a married couple and their children.
How does defining family affect marriage and family counseling?
Therapists who assume one 'normal' family type may wrongly label other family forms as pathological.
How can recognizing diverse family structures help counselors?
It allows counselors to be more flexible and creative in addressing needs of clients with nontraditional family patterns.
How can recognizing multiple definitions of family impact personal life?
It can lead to greater freedom and choice in how one lives and defines family relationships.
What limits exist in applying different family definitions?
Not all family patterns are workable in every social context; social and cultural conditions influence what is viable.
What do societal norms about kinship define?
How do kinship systems differ across societies?
They vary widely in norms, roles, and expectations for family members and relationships.
What does each society define as correct regarding family and kinship?
Its own particular patterns of marriage, family, and kinship organization.
Why might people overlook the range of family variations across societies?
Because they tend to be ethnocentric and favor the family structure familiar in their own society.
What assumption do people often make about changing family patterns?
That altering family patterns will cause the institution of family to collapse.
Why is it important to recognize a variety of family and kinship patterns?
Because many types can be appropriate and functional within their own social contexts.
What is one fundamental variation among family structures worldwide?
The type of marriage and the number of spouses considered acceptable.
How do marital status and number of spouses affect family organization?
They are major factors that determine how family systems are structured.
What position does the Catholic Church hold about nuns and priests?
They must take vows of chastity and remain unmarried to devote their lives to religious service.
What trend regarding singleness is emerging in the United States?
Remaining single is becoming an increasingly acceptable lifestyle.
How common is monogamy worldwide?
It is the only universally recognized form of marriage, though less than 20% of societies are strictly monogamous.
Why is monogamy viewed as the most 'proper' form of marriage in the US?
Because it reflects the cultural ideal that one person should marry only one other person at a time.
What is serial or sequential monogamy?
Marriage to several different spouses in succession, but only one at any given time.
Is sequential monogamy legal in the United States?
Yes, as long as it occurs one marriage at a time; being married to more than one person simultaneously is illegal.
What is group marriage?
A marriage form in which several men and/or several women are all married to each other.
According to Murdock (1957), how common was polygyny in his sample?
It was the norm in 75% of the 565 societies studied.
Which US community practiced a form of group marriage in the 1800s?
The Oneida Community, founded by John Humphrey Noyes.
What belief shaped the Oneida Community's group marriage?
Spiritual equality of all people and a communal sense of 'we' rather than 'I'.
What distinction should be made when discussing polygamy?
Between the ideology that permits it and its actual occurrence in society.
Why can multiple spouses only exist on a large scale in certain societies?
Because it depends on an unbalanced ratio of men to women.
What controls the practice of polygamy in societies?
In what societies and regions is polygyny most prevalent?
What percentage of women in Ibadan, Nigeria, were in polygamous marriages (Ware 1979)?
Nearly 50%, with higher rates among women over 40.
Where in the United States is polygyny practiced despite its illegality?
Among some Mormon fundamentalist groups in Utah and nearby states.
What was the historical position of the LDS Church on polygamy?
It was originally sanctioned by founder Joseph Smith, who claimed divine revelation approving plural marriage in 1843.
When did the LDS Church officially renounce polygamy?
In 1890, through the Manifesto issued by President Wilford Woodruff.
When did some LDS members continue to engage in plural marriage until?
Until 1904, when a second manifesto was issued by church president Joseph F. Smith.
What organization formed from disagreement over plural marriage within the LDS Church?
The Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (FLDS).
How does the FLDS Church differ from the LDS Church?
The FLDS continues to practice plural marriage, while the LDS Church officially rejected it and distances itself from the FLDS.
Who was Warren Steed Jeffs?
A radical FLDS leader convicted in 2007 for sexual assault of a minor and known for having around 78 wives.
What was significant about Warren Jeffs's case?
It brought national attention to polygamy and highlighted the FLDS Church's continued practice of plural marriage.
What is fraternal polyandry?
A form of polyandry where a woman is married to brothers who are cohusbands of the same generation.
What is the neocal residence pattern?
When a newly married couple establishes a residence separate from both families.
In what type of societies is the neocal pattern common?
In Western societies where monogamy and individualism are valued.
What is the patrilocal residence pattern?
When a newly married couple lives near or with the husband's family.
What type of societies often follow a patrilocal pattern?
Societies where men control land or family property; e.g. Amish communities in the U.S.
What is the matrilocal residence pattern?
When a newly married couple lives near or with the wife's family.
In what percentage of societies studied by Murdock was the matrilocal pattern found?
About 15% of societies studied by Murdock.
What are norms of descent and inheritance?
Rules determining which family line—maternal or paternal—is more important for inheritance and lineage.
How does Western society generally treat lineage?
It gives little importance to lineage beyond determining surnames.
What is a patrilineal system of descent?
A system in which descent and inheritance are traced through the father's lineage.
In a patrilineal system, who holds authority and inheritance rights?
What is a matrilineal system of descent?
A system in which descent and inheritance are traced through the mother's line.
In a matrilineal system, who holds authority and responsibility?
The mother's kin; property, wealth, and kinship are traced through female relatives.
What is bilateral lineage?
A system in which kinship, wealth, and inheritance are passed equally through both the mother's and father's sides.
What is a social consequence of bilateral lineage?
Parents and kin groups have less influence over their children's marriage choices.
What are norms of authority in families?
Rules about who makes important decisions and holds power within the family.
What is a matriarchal system?
A family system where women, especially mothers, hold authority and dominate decision-making.
What kind of authority system is most common in the United States?
Often described as more patriarchal than egalitarian.
How are exogamy and endogamy different?
Exogamy promotes marrying outside the group; Endogamy restricts marriage to within the group.
How common are incest taboos?
Nearly universal across societies, forbidding marriage to close relatives.
Which relationships are typically forbidden under incest taboos?
Which ancient societies had exceptions to incest taboos?
Egyptian and Inca royalty are believed to have had exceptions.
What kinds of marriages are often forbidden under societal norms?
How are norms about same-sex marriage changing globally?
As of Pew Research Center 2017, 26 countries, including the U.S., allow same-sex marriage.
How have endogamous norms varied in U.S. history?
Interracial marriages were once considered improper or even illegal.
Why might incest taboos have evolved?
What did Murdock (1949) suggest about understanding incest taboos?
That they must be explained by combining theories from multiple disciplines of human behavior.
Why do many societies practice endogamy?
People within the same group share similar values, attitudes, and expectations, reducing conflict.
What is one social function of marriage within the same class or religion?
What social pattern is shown by Merton's concept 'in-group virtues to out-group vices'?
What does the functionalist perspective emphasize about the family?
What are the key functions of the family in the functionalist view?
Which family function do sociologists consider most important?
What did Reiss (1965) argue about family functions?
Why is the family essential for a child's development?
How does the family differ from other social institutions in socialization?
How have modern social changes affected family socialization?
Despite external influences, what remains the family's key role?
Besides children, who else benefits from family socialization?
Adults continue to learn from each other and from their kin.
What is the second major function of the family according to functionalists?
Providing affection and emotional support.
What two essential functions did Parsons and Bales (1955) identify?
Why is affection and emotional support vital for individuals?
Humans are social beings who need care, affection, and companionship throughout life.
How does the family compare to other sources of social support?
The family is the most effective and enduring source of emotional and supportive relationships.
How does family connection impact aging individuals?
Older adults with strong family ties and supportive relationships tend to live longer and feel more fulfilled.
What is sexual regulation in the context of family functions?
Societies approve certain sexual behaviors and disapprove others to maintain social order.
How do societies control sexual activity?
By socializing sexual norms and enforcing them through roles, taboos, and moral standards.
What are examples of sexual norms enforced by societies?
What is the most socially approved sexual interest in the United States?
Heterosexual relationships within marriage.
What types of sexual relationships are typically disapproved in U.S. society?
Why do families play a major role in regulating sexual activity?
Because sexual behavior is closely tied to reproduction and family stability.
What is the family's role in reproduction according to the functionalist perspective?
It provides the most socially approved setting for bearing and raising children.
What is the principle of legitimacy?
Malinowski's idea that every society ensures each child has a legitimate father figure for protection and representation.
According to the principle of legitimacy, what happens if children are born outside the family?
They may be stigmatized as illegitimate, though this stigma has lessened over time.
How do functionalists view nontraditional families?
They accept that father substitutes or alternative family roles can fulfill essential parenting functions.
What do interactionists argue about parent-child relationships?
Social bonds and interaction matter more than biological links in shaping relationships.
What are blended families?
What are common challenges in blended or adoptive families?
What is social placement?
The process by which families determine the social roles and statuses their children will occupy in society.
How does family membership influence achieved statuses like education or occupation?
A person's family and kin network shape access to resources and opportunities that affect these achievements.
What other basic functions does the family perform besides the main five?
How do conflict theorists view the family compared to functionalists?
They see the family as a system of inequality and power struggle rather than harmony and balance.
According to conflict theory, what causes tension within families?
How do conflict theorists view marriage and parenthood?
What did Friedrich Engels (1902) argue about the family in capitalist society?
How do feminist theories expand on conflict theory?
According to Marxist-feminist theory, what happens when women unite over shared interests?
What does conflict theory say about change within the family?
What does conflict theory assume about economic organization and family life?
What is the concept of sexual property?
In patriarchal societies, how does sexual property typically appear?
How far back does the history of male dominance and ownership of women extend?
What did ancient Hebrew law require if a man had sexual relations with an unbetrothed virgin?
What were cultural reasons for guarding women in many societies?
What customs reflect the historical idea of women as property?
Until when could U.S. women legally be denied credit based on gender?
Until the Equal Credit Opportunity Act of 1974
How does conflict theory explain male domination?
How do women exercise power in traditional relationships according to conflict theory?
By giving or withholding sex within marriage
What happens to a woman's power when she bears children according to conflict theory?
Her power declines as she becomes more confined to domestic roles with less access to education and income
What does conflict theory suggest about shifts in power dynamics?
Power and domination change as access to economic and occupational resources shifts
How has women's bargaining position in modern industrialized nations changed?
Greater equality due to fewer children, higher employment, and less economic dependence on husbands
What factors contribute to conflict in families besides gender inequality?
What often underlies familial conflicts according to conflict theory?
Inequality of power, authority, or resources rather than personality differences
What can help in resolving troubled relationships according to conflict theorists?
Adjusting the balance of power between partners instead of focusing only on personality
What does the exchange perspective say about human interactions?
They are social exchanges where people weigh rewards and costs
According to exchange theory, when will people view a relationship as unsatisfactory?
When the exchange is unequal and one partner controls the relationship
How does the exchange theory apply to marriage?
Marriage is an exchange of what each partner offers, e.g. - Money - Status - Affection
What is the difference between arranged and self-chosen marriages under exchange theory?
What is the theory of complementary needs?
What did Robert Winch conclude about mate selection?
Why might a relationship fail according to complementary needs theory?
How did Willard Waller (1938) view courtship?
According to Waller's exchange theory, what do people aim to do in mate selection?
What happens when exchanges are unequal in a relationship?
How can exchange theory help troubled marriages?
What does the interactionist perspective focus on when studying families?
How does the interactionist perspective view marriage?
According to the interactionist view, what defines a good marital adjustment?
What do individuals bring to marriage that can cause conflict?
What happens when spouses fail to meet each other's role expectations?
How have modern marital roles changed according to interactionists?
What central idea from symbolic interactionism is reflected in marriage?
Shared meanings, role-taking, and symbolic communication shape how partners understand and perform roles.
What do interactionists emphasize as most important in family relationships?
The ongoing negotiation of shared definitions, expectations, and perspectives between partners.
What helps prevent conflict in marriages according to the interactionist perspective?
Shared meanings and expectations between spouses.
When might disagreements not lead to conflict in marriage?
When the issue is considered unimportant or when partners accept each other's behaviors and definitions.
What must married couples continually do to maintain a satisfying relationship?
Redefine themselves in relation to each other, often unconsciously.
How can marriage counseling help from an interactionist viewpoint?
Make unconscious definitions and expectations conscious so couples can better understand their influence on each other.
What does the interactionist perspective emphasize about marital success?
That it requires continual adjustment and adaptation to shifts in shared meanings.
Why is the interactionist perspective especially useful for marital therapy?
It helps clinicians see that family members' behaviors depend on how they interpret one another's actions.
What can clinicians do using the interactionist approach?
Help family members clarify intentions and understand how each defines others' actions.
What does the developmental perspective on the family propose?
Families progress through a life cycle with stages of changing roles, responsibilities, and tasks.
Why is success in each family life stage important?
Failure in earlier stages makes later stages more difficult to navigate successfully.
What does the first stage of the family life cycle typically involve?
How can the first stage differ for some couples?
It varies for teenage, interracial, or second marriages, and for couples who lived together before marriage.
How many stages are commonly identified in the family life cycle?
Typically seven stages; transitions often based on the age of the oldest child.
What happens during stage two of the family life cycle?
What is the main focus of stage three of the family life cycle?
Education and socialization of children as they enter school and approach adolescence.
What new challenges arise in stage three?
How can major life events modify stage three responsibilities?
Events like additional children, job loss, or divorce can alter family roles and dynamics.
What characterizes stage four of the family life cycle?
Families with adolescents; increased economic pressures and social issues such as drugs, fashion, and peer culture.
What is the key task of stage four families?
Preparing teenagers to become independent and eventually leave home.
What is stage five called in the family life cycle?
The launching stage, when the oldest child leaves home for college, work, or marriage.
What transition occurs in stage five?
What is stage six known as?
The 'empty-nest stage', when all children have left home and parents readjust to life as a couple.
What challenges may arise during the empty-nest stage?
What defines the seventh and final stage of the family life cycle?
Retirement and the eventual death of one or both spouses, ending that family's cycle.
Why do women often outlive men in heterosexual marriages?
What pattern did Olson and McCubbin (1983) find in family satisfaction?
Why does marital satisfaction often increase after the launching stage?
What are the main characteristics of the U.S. family system?
How do U.S. families compare to those in other countries?
What trend is seen in marital and family roles in the U.S.?
What factors are emphasized in U.S. mate selection?
As of 2017, what percentage of adults were married in the U.S.?
What happens to the marriage rate during economic recessions and prosperous periods?
How do wars influence marriage rates?
What happened to marriage rates during the Great Depression?
What caused marriage rates to rise dramatically at the start of World War II?
Many men married before going to war or to gain the social benefits of married status.
What happened to U.S. marriage rates in 1946?
They surged to a historic peak of \(16.4\) marriages per \(1{,}000\) people in \(1946\).
How have U.S. marriage rates changed since 1970?
They have steadily declined since \(1970\), reaching \(6.8\) per \(1{,}000\) in \(2009\) and \(6.9\) per \(1{,}000\) in \(2016\).
What is the most and least popular day for weddings?
How can businesses related to marriage use sociological statistics?
Why might a travel agent care about marriage trends?
To target honeymoon packages and promotions toward young couples during peak marriage months.
What example does the text give for applying marriage trend data?
A travel agent could decorate showrooms with young couples and offer low-priced honeymoon packages in October.
How can marriage statistics help a travel agent with advertising timing?
By knowing peak months, agents can advertise during preceding months in magazines popular with young adults.
How can knowledge of marriage trends help someone planning their own wedding?
When are wedding-related services typically more expensive?
During popular wedding months like October, when demand is highest.
What is the typical age difference between spouses in U.S. marriages?
About \(4\) years, with men typically older than women.
How did the median ages at first marriage change between 1900 and 2015?
What trend in marriage age has been observed in recent decades?
How did the percentage of never-married adults aged 25–29 change since 1970?
Why are teenage marriages a concern in the United States?
How does relationship satisfaction compare when marriage follows childbirth versus precedes it?
What did Fein (2004) find about timing of first births by social class?
What proportion of the least-educated couples had their first child before marriage?
Among Black Americans, when do most first births occur relative to marriage?
What do studies show about people who marry young?
What percentage of U.S. husband-wife households were childless in 2000?
How did the number of childless married households change from 2000 to 2010?
What was the U.S. birth rate in 2000, 2010, and 2015?
Why do social scientists find variations in birth rates more meaningful than the rates themselves?
Because significant changes indicate underlying social, economic, or cultural factors worth studying.
What major event caused a rise in the U.S. birth rate in the late 1940s and 1950s?
The 'baby boom' following World War II.
What factors contributed to the 'baby boom'?
According to Bean (1983), what limited family size during the baby boom?
Rising costs discouraged couples from having large families.
How many married couples had four or more children under 18 in 2000?
19.5 million (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010).
What has caused a decrease in unplanned and unwanted births in recent decades?
Why is it hard to predict how abortion laws will affect future birth rates?
Because abortion laws vary by state and shift with political leadership.
How has U.S. family size changed since 1970?
What trend has been observed among women ages 30-35?
The number of single women in that age range has risen rapidly.
Is the rise in single-parent households unique to the U.S.?
No; similar increases in single-parent households have been seen globally.
When does the greatest change in family interaction patterns typically occur?
With the birth of the first child, causing major shifts in roles and behaviors.
What did early writers call the initial stages of parenthood?
A 'crisis' described as a traumatic change forcing couples to reorganize their lives.
How do later studies describe the beginning of parenthood?
It is a period of transition, but not so dramatic that it should be termed a crisis.
What expectation often follows the birth of a first child?
That a second and third child should follow.
How are families with only one child often stereotyped?
Do research findings support stereotypes about only children?
No. Research findings do not support those stereotypes; the descriptions are inaccurate.
What did Blake's research suggest about single children?
What is the dilution hypothesis?
The theory that the more children a family has, the less each child receives in parental attention and resources.
What does the dilution hypothesis suggest about children in large families?
Children in large families receive fewer familial resources like time, energy, and money compared to those in smaller families.
What types of resources are diluted in large families?
How are family size and socioeconomic factors related?
Which religious groups tend to have larger families?
According to Wagner and Schubert (1985), how does child-rearing differ in large families?
What advantages are associated with smaller families?
What risks are higher in large families?
How do large families affect family dynamics?
How has divorce traditionally been viewed in Catholic countries like Ireland and Brazil?
What is the 'triple talaq' practice?
What are no-fault divorces based on?
How does individualism contribute to high U.S. divorce rates?
How does the fading of romantic love affect divorce rates?
How does women's financial independence affect divorce rates?
How do stressful relationships contribute to higher divorce rates?
How does social acceptance influence divorce rates?
How does legal ease affect divorce rates?
Has the divorce rate in the U.S. been increasing or decreasing recently?
Which country had the highest crude divorce rate in 2013?
What were the approximate divorce rates in the U.S., Latvia, Lithuania, and Denmark in 2016?
Which countries also had some of the lowest divorce rates in recent years?
What trend did Portugal experience between 1970 and 2016?
Why do people often say that one in two marriages ends in divorce?
What was the U.S. divorce rate in 2016 using that yearly comparison method?
Why is the yearly divorce rate misleading?
What percentage of marriages end in divorce after 5 years? After 10 years?
How has the U.S. divorce rate changed since 1979-1981?
How do divorce rates tend to change with economic conditions?
What factors contribute to the South's higher divorce rate?
How does socioeconomic status affect divorce rates?
What is a covenant marriage?
A legally binding marriage that limits divorce grounds (e.g., abuse, felony, adultery) to make divorce harder to obtain.
Who primarily supported the covenant marriage movement?
Conservative Christians concerned about rising divorce rates.
What does nonmarital cohabitation mean?
Two unmarried, unrelated adults living together as a couple in an intimate partnership.
Why might nonmarital cohabitation not fit the traditional definition of 'family'?
Because it involves intimacy and shared living without legal or formal ties of marriage.
What policy questions does nonmarital cohabitation raise?
How many unmarried adults were cohabiting with a partner in 2016?
Over 18 million (a 29% increase since 2007).
Which older age group commonly cohabits and how did their rate change?
Adults age 50+; cohabitation rate grew 75% between 2007 and 2017.
How do cohabiting couples compare to married couples regarding social roles?
They tend to mirror society and accept gender roles similar to married couples.
What did Waite et al. (2000) find about cohabitants' commitment?
Nonmarried cohabitants were significantly less committed to marriage than married couples.
How did cohabitants view sexual exclusivity?
Most valued sexual exclusivity and voluntarily limited outside sexual activity.
Is nonmarital cohabitation a substitute for marriage or solution to divorce?
No. Most cohabiting relationships are short-term; longer cohabitation increases chance of marriage.
In heterosexual cohabiting couples, who typically does most of the housework?
Women, similar to traditional married couples.
What problems do unmarried cohabiting couples commonly face?
What are functional values of cohabitation for adults?
Why has childfree marriage gained acceptance?
What did Forsyth (1999) find about childfree marriages?
How can childfreeness benefit dual-career marriages?
What defines a one-parent family?
How many one-parent families were in the U.S. in 2019?
Which family type is most affected by poverty?
What challenges do families below the poverty line often face?
What did Bilgé and Kaufman (1983) argue about one-parent families?
How can single-parent families function effectively?
What did Bilgé and Kaufman observe about one-parent, female-headed families worldwide?
What did Cashion (1982) find about emotional adjustment in children from female-headed families?
How did Cashion (1982) compare intellectual development and delinquency rates?
How does poverty affect female-headed families?
How does stigmatization affect children in female-headed families?
What was Cashion's overall conclusion about children from female-headed families when not affected by poverty?
In 2016, what percentage of U.S. children lived with their mother only?
How did the 2016 percentage of children living with their mother only vary by race?
What major change occurred since World War II regarding women and work?
What percentage of married women worked outside the home in 1940?
What percentage of married women worked outside the home by 2016?
Are women with children more or less likely to hold jobs than those without children?
What are 'dual-employed marriages'?
What is meant by 'dual-career marriage'?
What did Burke and Weir (1976) find about women in two-career families?
How did men in two-career families compare to those in one-career families?
What challenges do dual-career marriages face?
What is the 'time crunch' described by Fox and Nichols (1983)?
How are wives' careers often treated compared to their husbands'?
What is the ongoing challenge in dual-career marriages regarding gender roles?
What is the family's primary social purpose?
What are the smallest family units?
What are families of orientation and procreation?
What is the difference between monogamy and polygamy?
What are the main residence patterns for couples?
What is the most common residence pattern worldwide?
Patrilocal residence — living in the groom's community.
What are the main norms of descent?
What are the three family authority types?
What are endogamous and exogamous marriage rules?
What is nearly universally forbidden across cultures?
According to the functionalist perspective, what are the five major family functions?
What does the conflict perspective focus on in families?
Struggles for power and control due to unequal distribution of resources.
What does the exchange perspective emphasize?
Rewards and costs in all relationships; people seek mates who meet their needs.
What is the complementary needs theory?
The idea that people choose mates whose needs complement their own.
What does the interactionist perspective study?
What does the developmental perspective focus on?
What norms does the U.S. family system emphasize?
How do family systems in the U.S. compare to those in other societies?
What factors cause rates of marriage to vary?
What has happened to the age at marriage in the U.S. since the 1970s?
What variables influence family size and parent-child relationships?
How do modern families differ from earlier generations regarding children?
How does the U.S. compare globally in divorce rates?
What do variations in divorce rates illustrate?
What types of family lifestyles are increasingly common today?
How do dual-career marriages differ from one-career families?
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