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Define gene, locus, allele.
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Difference between genotype and phenotype?
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What is the difference between homozygous and heterozygous?
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Define dominant vs recessive allele.
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What is a character vs a trait?
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What does Mendel's Law of Segregation state?
Alleles segregate during gamete formation, each gamete carries one allele.
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What does the Law of Independent Assortment state?
Genes for different traits assort independently during gamete formation.
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What is the purpose of a test cross?
To determine the genotype of an individual with a dominant phenotype.
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What is a Punnett square used for?
To predict the genetic outcomes of a cross between two individuals.
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Difference between product rule and sum rule in probability?
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Define monohybrid vs dihybrid cross.
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Define incomplete dominance and give an example.
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Define codominance and give an example.
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Give an example of multiple alleles.
Example: ABO blood group system (A, B, O alleles).
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Define pleiotropy and give an example.
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Define epistasis and give an example.
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What is polygenic inheritance and its phenotype distribution?
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What are linked genes and their relation to recombination?
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Basics of sex-linked inheritance?
Traits associated with genes on sex chromosomes, often X-linked.
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Define wild-type vs mutant.
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Utility of pedigree analysis?
To trace inheritance patterns of traits through generations.
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What are lethal alleles and how do they alter ratios?
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Expected phenotype ratio for AaxAa monohybrid cross?
Ratio: 3:1 (dominant:recessive).
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Expected phenotype ratio for AaBb x aabb (testcross dihybrid)?
Ratio: 1:1:1:1.
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Probability that two heterozygous parents for an autosomal recessive trait have an affected child?
Probability: 25%.
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Define evolution in biological terms.
Change in allele frequencies in a population over time.
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Summarize Darwin & Wallace's idea of natural selection.
Survival of the fittest; favorable traits increase in frequency.
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Key evidence for evolution (list 4).
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Difference between homologous and analogous structures.
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Define adaptation and fitness.
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What is convergent evolution? Give an example.
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What is divergent evolution? Give an example.
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Role of Hox genes in evolution?
Control body plan development and segmentation in organisms.
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Difference between natural and artificial selection?
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Define biological species concept.
Species are groups of interbreeding populations that are reproductively isolated.
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Difference between allopatric and sympatric speciation.
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Examples of prezygotic vs postzygotic barriers.
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Define adaptive radiation and its trigger.
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Difference between gradualism and punctuated equilibrium.
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Name two misconceptions about evolution.
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Define microevolution vs macroevolution.
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State the Hardy-Weinberg genotype equation.
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List Hardy-Weinberg assumptions.
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How to calculate q from recessive phenotype frequency?
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Define genetic drift and its two key forms.
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Define gene flow and its effect.
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Define mutation and its evolutionary role.
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Define relative fitness.
Ability of an organism to survive and reproduce relative to others.
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Name and define three selection patterns.
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What is frequency-dependent selection?
Fitness of a phenotype depends on its frequency relative to others in the population.
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What is sexual selection? Give two results.
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Define kin selection and inclusive fitness.
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If \(q^2 = 0.16\), what are \(p\), \(q\), and \(2pq\)?
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In Hardy-Weinberg, if \(p=0.7\), what are the expected genotype frequencies?
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What is the definition of 'demography'?
Demography is the statistical study of populations, including the structure, distribution, and trends in population changes.
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List the types of dispersion patterns and their causes.
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What is the basic idea and formula of mark-recapture?
The basic idea is to estimate population size using the formula: \(N = \frac{(M \times C)}{R}\), where \(M\) is marked, \(C\) is captured, and \(R\) is recaptured.
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What are Type I, II, and III survivorship curves with examples?
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Define 'fecundity' and its trade-offs.
Fecundity is the potential reproductive capacity of an organism. Trade-offs include energy allocation between reproduction and survival.
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What are the differences between exponential and logistic growth models?
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What does 'carrying capacity (K)' mean?
Carrying capacity (K) is the maximum population size that an environment can sustain indefinitely without degrading.
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What are density-dependent vs density-independent factors?
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What are the differences between r-selected and K-selected species?
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What is the definition of 'ecological niche'?
An ecological niche is the role and position a species has in its environment, including habitat, resource use, and interactions.
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What is the competitive exclusion principle?
The competitive exclusion principle states that two species competing for the same resources cannot coexist at constant population values.
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What is resource partitioning?
Resource partitioning is the division of resources by different species to reduce competition and allow coexistence.
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What is the difference between predation and herbivory?
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What is aposematic coloration vs camouflage?
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What is the difference between Batesian and Müllerian mimicry?
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What are the types of symbiosis with examples?
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What is the difference between foundation and keystone species?
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What is the impact of invasive species?
Invasive species can disrupt local ecosystems, outcompete native species, and lead to biodiversity loss.
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What is the difference between primary and secondary succession?
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What is the role of pioneer species?
Pioneer species are the first to colonize disturbed areas, initiating ecological succession and creating conditions for other species.
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What is the difference between innate and learned behaviors?
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What is a fixed action pattern?
A fixed action pattern is a sequence of unchangeable behaviors triggered by a specific stimulus.
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What is the purpose of migration behavior?
Migration behavior allows species to move to favorable environments for breeding, feeding, or avoiding harsh conditions.
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What are the trade-offs in foraging behavior?
Trade-offs in foraging behavior involve balancing energy gained from food against the risks of predation and the energy spent searching.
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What is the difference between classical and operant conditioning?
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What is an example of cognitive learning?
An example of cognitive learning is problem-solving, where an animal uses reasoning to achieve a goal (e.g., using tools).
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What are the mating systems: monogamy, polygyny, and polyandry?
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What is altruism and kin selection?
Altruism is behavior that benefits others at a cost to oneself. Kin selection is a form of altruism that benefits relatives, enhancing shared genes.
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Predict the offspring ratio for AaBb x AaBb (independent assortment).
The offspring ratio will be: - 9:3:3:1 - 9 AaBB/AaBb - 3 Aabb - 3 aaBb - 1 aabb
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If a female is a carrier for an X-linked recessive and the male is normal, what is the probability of an affected son?
The probability of an affected son is 50% since he inherits the X chromosome from the mother.
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How do linked genes affect dihybrid cross outcomes?
Linked genes do not assort independently, leading to fewer recombinant phenotypes than expected in dihybrid crosses.
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How does gene flow counteract genetic drift?
Gene flow introduces new alleles into a population, increasing genetic diversity and reducing the effects of genetic drift.
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Why does drift act faster in small populations?
Drift acts faster in small populations because random events can have a more significant impact on allele frequencies.
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What happens to heterozygosity under strong directional selection?
Heterozygosity decreases under strong directional selection as alleles are favored, reducing genetic diversity.
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How does increased density affect disease transmission?
Increased density can lead to higher disease transmission rates due to closer contact among individuals.
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Give an example of resource partitioning.
An example of resource partitioning is different bird species feeding at different heights in the same tree to reduce competition.
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Why might r-selected species dominate after disturbance?
r-selected species often dominate after disturbance due to their rapid reproduction and growth rates, allowing quick recovery.
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What is a gene?
A heritable unit of DNA encoding a product.
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What does locus refer to?
The physical location of a gene on a chromosome.
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What is an allele?
An alternative form of a gene.
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Define genotype.
The allele combination of an individual.
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What is a phenotype?
Observable traits resulting from genotype and environment.
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What does a dominant allele do?
Masks the expression of a recessive allele in heterozygotes.
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What is a character in genetics?
A heritable feature (e.g., flower color).
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What is a trait?
A specific variant of a character (e.g., purple).
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What happens during gamete formation?
The two alleles for a heritable character segregate, so each gamete gets one allele.
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What is the product rule in probability?
Probability of independent events occurring together = product of their probabilities.
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What does monohybrid mean?
Follows one character; dihybrid follows two characters simultaneously.
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What is an example of incomplete dominance?
Red x white snapdragons → pink flowers.
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What is codominance?
Both alleles expressed in heterozygote, e.g., human ABO blood type AB shows both A and B antigens.
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What are the three common alleles of the ABO blood group?
IA, IB, i.
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What is epistasis?
A gene at one locus alters phenotypic expression of a gene at another locus.
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What is the wild-type phenotype?
The common or standard phenotype.
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What is natural selection?
The environment selects traits that improve survival and reproduction.
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What is a species?
Groups of interbreeding natural populations reproductively isolated from others.
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What is gradualism in evolution?
Slow, steady change over time.
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What does punctuated equilibrium refer to?
Long periods of stasis punctuated by rapid change.
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What is microevolution?
Changes in allele frequencies in a population over generations.
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What does the equation p² + 2pq + q² = 1 represent?
It represents the allele frequencies within populations under Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.
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What is macroevolution?
Processes leading to speciation and high-level evolutionary changes.
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What conditions are assumed in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium?
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Define gene, locus, allele.
Difference between genotype and phenotype?
What is the difference between homozygous and heterozygous?
Define dominant vs recessive allele.
What is a character vs a trait?
What does Mendel's Law of Segregation state?
Alleles segregate during gamete formation, each gamete carries one allele.
What does the Law of Independent Assortment state?
Genes for different traits assort independently during gamete formation.
What is the purpose of a test cross?
To determine the genotype of an individual with a dominant phenotype.
What is a Punnett square used for?
To predict the genetic outcomes of a cross between two individuals.
Difference between product rule and sum rule in probability?
Define monohybrid vs dihybrid cross.
Define incomplete dominance and give an example.
Define codominance and give an example.
Give an example of multiple alleles.
Example: ABO blood group system (A, B, O alleles).
Define pleiotropy and give an example.
Define epistasis and give an example.
What is polygenic inheritance and its phenotype distribution?
What are linked genes and their relation to recombination?
Basics of sex-linked inheritance?
Traits associated with genes on sex chromosomes, often X-linked.
Define wild-type vs mutant.
Utility of pedigree analysis?
To trace inheritance patterns of traits through generations.
What are lethal alleles and how do they alter ratios?
Expected phenotype ratio for AaxAa monohybrid cross?
Ratio: 3:1 (dominant:recessive).
Expected phenotype ratio for AaBb x aabb (testcross dihybrid)?
Ratio: 1:1:1:1.
Probability that two heterozygous parents for an autosomal recessive trait have an affected child?
Probability: 25%.
Define evolution in biological terms.
Change in allele frequencies in a population over time.
Summarize Darwin & Wallace's idea of natural selection.
Survival of the fittest; favorable traits increase in frequency.
Key evidence for evolution (list 4).
Difference between homologous and analogous structures.
Define adaptation and fitness.
What is convergent evolution? Give an example.
What is divergent evolution? Give an example.
Role of Hox genes in evolution?
Control body plan development and segmentation in organisms.
Difference between natural and artificial selection?
Define biological species concept.
Species are groups of interbreeding populations that are reproductively isolated.
Difference between allopatric and sympatric speciation.
Examples of prezygotic vs postzygotic barriers.
Define adaptive radiation and its trigger.
Difference between gradualism and punctuated equilibrium.
Name two misconceptions about evolution.
Define microevolution vs macroevolution.
State the Hardy-Weinberg genotype equation.
List Hardy-Weinberg assumptions.
How to calculate q from recessive phenotype frequency?
Define genetic drift and its two key forms.
Define gene flow and its effect.
Define mutation and its evolutionary role.
Define relative fitness.
Ability of an organism to survive and reproduce relative to others.
Name and define three selection patterns.
What is frequency-dependent selection?
Fitness of a phenotype depends on its frequency relative to others in the population.
What is sexual selection? Give two results.
Define kin selection and inclusive fitness.
If \(q^2 = 0.16\), what are \(p\), \(q\), and \(2pq\)?
In Hardy-Weinberg, if \(p=0.7\), what are the expected genotype frequencies?
What is the definition of 'demography'?
Demography is the statistical study of populations, including the structure, distribution, and trends in population changes.
List the types of dispersion patterns and their causes.
What is the basic idea and formula of mark-recapture?
The basic idea is to estimate population size using the formula: \(N = \frac{(M \times C)}{R}\), where \(M\) is marked, \(C\) is captured, and \(R\) is recaptured.
What are Type I, II, and III survivorship curves with examples?
Define 'fecundity' and its trade-offs.
Fecundity is the potential reproductive capacity of an organism. Trade-offs include energy allocation between reproduction and survival.
What are the differences between exponential and logistic growth models?
What does 'carrying capacity (K)' mean?
Carrying capacity (K) is the maximum population size that an environment can sustain indefinitely without degrading.
What are density-dependent vs density-independent factors?
What are the differences between r-selected and K-selected species?
What is the definition of 'ecological niche'?
An ecological niche is the role and position a species has in its environment, including habitat, resource use, and interactions.
What is the competitive exclusion principle?
The competitive exclusion principle states that two species competing for the same resources cannot coexist at constant population values.
What is resource partitioning?
Resource partitioning is the division of resources by different species to reduce competition and allow coexistence.
What is the difference between predation and herbivory?
What is aposematic coloration vs camouflage?
What is the difference between Batesian and Müllerian mimicry?
What are the types of symbiosis with examples?
What is the difference between foundation and keystone species?
What is the impact of invasive species?
Invasive species can disrupt local ecosystems, outcompete native species, and lead to biodiversity loss.
What is the difference between primary and secondary succession?
What is the role of pioneer species?
Pioneer species are the first to colonize disturbed areas, initiating ecological succession and creating conditions for other species.
What is the difference between innate and learned behaviors?
What is a fixed action pattern?
A fixed action pattern is a sequence of unchangeable behaviors triggered by a specific stimulus.
What is the purpose of migration behavior?
Migration behavior allows species to move to favorable environments for breeding, feeding, or avoiding harsh conditions.
What are the trade-offs in foraging behavior?
Trade-offs in foraging behavior involve balancing energy gained from food against the risks of predation and the energy spent searching.
What is the difference between classical and operant conditioning?
What is an example of cognitive learning?
An example of cognitive learning is problem-solving, where an animal uses reasoning to achieve a goal (e.g., using tools).
What are the mating systems: monogamy, polygyny, and polyandry?
What is altruism and kin selection?
Altruism is behavior that benefits others at a cost to oneself. Kin selection is a form of altruism that benefits relatives, enhancing shared genes.
Predict the offspring ratio for AaBb x AaBb (independent assortment).
The offspring ratio will be: - 9:3:3:1 - 9 AaBB/AaBb - 3 Aabb - 3 aaBb - 1 aabb
If a female is a carrier for an X-linked recessive and the male is normal, what is the probability of an affected son?
The probability of an affected son is 50% since he inherits the X chromosome from the mother.
How do linked genes affect dihybrid cross outcomes?
Linked genes do not assort independently, leading to fewer recombinant phenotypes than expected in dihybrid crosses.
How does gene flow counteract genetic drift?
Gene flow introduces new alleles into a population, increasing genetic diversity and reducing the effects of genetic drift.
Why does drift act faster in small populations?
Drift acts faster in small populations because random events can have a more significant impact on allele frequencies.
What happens to heterozygosity under strong directional selection?
Heterozygosity decreases under strong directional selection as alleles are favored, reducing genetic diversity.
How does increased density affect disease transmission?
Increased density can lead to higher disease transmission rates due to closer contact among individuals.
Give an example of resource partitioning.
An example of resource partitioning is different bird species feeding at different heights in the same tree to reduce competition.
Why might r-selected species dominate after disturbance?
r-selected species often dominate after disturbance due to their rapid reproduction and growth rates, allowing quick recovery.
What is a gene?
A heritable unit of DNA encoding a product.
What does locus refer to?
The physical location of a gene on a chromosome.
What is an allele?
An alternative form of a gene.
Define genotype.
The allele combination of an individual.
What is a phenotype?
Observable traits resulting from genotype and environment.
What does a dominant allele do?
Masks the expression of a recessive allele in heterozygotes.
What is a character in genetics?
A heritable feature (e.g., flower color).
What is a trait?
A specific variant of a character (e.g., purple).
What happens during gamete formation?
The two alleles for a heritable character segregate, so each gamete gets one allele.
What is the product rule in probability?
Probability of independent events occurring together = product of their probabilities.
What does monohybrid mean?
Follows one character; dihybrid follows two characters simultaneously.
What is an example of incomplete dominance?
Red x white snapdragons → pink flowers.
What is codominance?
Both alleles expressed in heterozygote, e.g., human ABO blood type AB shows both A and B antigens.
What are the three common alleles of the ABO blood group?
IA, IB, i.
What is epistasis?
A gene at one locus alters phenotypic expression of a gene at another locus.
What is the wild-type phenotype?
The common or standard phenotype.
What is natural selection?
The environment selects traits that improve survival and reproduction.
What is a species?
Groups of interbreeding natural populations reproductively isolated from others.
What is gradualism in evolution?
Slow, steady change over time.
What does punctuated equilibrium refer to?
Long periods of stasis punctuated by rapid change.
What is microevolution?
Changes in allele frequencies in a population over generations.
What does the equation p² + 2pq + q² = 1 represent?
It represents the allele frequencies within populations under Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.
What is macroevolution?
Processes leading to speciation and high-level evolutionary changes.
What conditions are assumed in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium?
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