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Flashcards in this deck (261)

๊ฒ€์ƒ‰ ์ค‘...

  • What is blood primarily composed of?

    • Cells
    • Plasma (extracellular fluid)

  • What are the formed elements in blood?

    • Erythrocytes (red blood cells)
    • Leukocytes (white blood cells)
    • Platelets

  • What happens when blood leaves the circulatory system?

    Plasma proteins react to form a clot including formed elements and serum.

  • What is serum?

    A pale yellow liquid containing growth factors and proteins released during clot formation.

  • What is the hematocrit?

    The volume of erythrocytes in blood, normally about 44% in healthy adults.

  • What is the composition of plasma?

    An aqueous solution with a pH of 7.4, containing proteins, nutrients, gases, waste products, hormones, and electrolytes.

  • What are the main plasma proteins?

    • Albumin
    • Globulins (ฮฑ- and ฮฒ-globulins)

  • What is the role of albumin in blood?

    Maintains the osmotic pressure of the blood.

  • What is the role of globulins?

    Includes transport factors like transferrin and plays a role in coagulation.

  • What is the primary function of leukocytes?

    Act as the body's chief defense against infection.

  • How do leukocytes respond to infection?

    They become motile, cross venule walls, and migrate into tissues.

  • What substances does blood transport?

    • O2
    • CO2
    • Nutrients
    • Hormones

  • What is the significance of blood in body temperature regulation?

    Blood participates in heat distribution and maintaining body temperature.

  • What is the role of blood in acid-base balance?

    Helps maintain the acid-base and osmotic balance in the body.

  • What is the composition of plasma?

    • 7% of plasma volume is made up of substances.
    • Includes plasma proteins, nutrients, gases, waste, hormones, and electrolytes.

  • What is the normal hematocrit in healthy adults?

    About 44% of total blood volume is erythrocytes.

  • What is the function of blood?

    • Transports O2, CO2, hormones, and nutrients.
    • Participates in heat distribution and acid-base balance.

  • What are the major plasma proteins?

    • Albumin: maintains osmotic pressure.
    • Globulins: transport factors and coagulation proteins.

  • What is the role of leukocytes?

    Leukocytes are the body's defense against infection, migrating to sites of infection when activated.

  • What happens to blood when it leaves the circulatory system?

    Plasma proteins react to form a clot, including formed elements and serum.

  • What is the pH of plasma?

    The pH of plasma is approximately 7.4.

  • How is blood separated by centrifugation?

    Blood can be separated into layers: erythrocytes, plasma, and a buffy coat of leukocytes and platelets.

  • What is the composition of whole blood?

    • Erythrocytes: 44%
    • Plasma: 55%
    • Proteins: 7%
    • Water: 92%
    • Other solutes: 1%

  • What are the main components of plasma?

    • Albumins: 58%
    • Globulins: 37%
    • Fibrinogen: 4%
    • Regulatory proteins: <1%

  • What is the normal range of erythrocytes in blood?

    4.2-6.2 million per cubic mm

  • What is the normal range of leukocytes in blood?

    4.5-11 thousand per cubic mm

  • What is the normal range of platelets in blood?

    150-400 thousand per cubic mm

  • What is the buffy coat?

    A thin layer of leukocytes and platelets between erythrocytes and plasma.

  • What happens to blood after centrifugation?

    Erythrocytes settle at the bottom, forming hematocrit; plasma remains on top.

  • What is the O2 pressure in blood?

    Highest in arteries and lung capillaries; decreases in tissue capillaries.

  • What is fibrinogen?

    A plasma protein that polymerizes during clotting to form fibrin, blocking blood loss.

  • What are the types of leukocytes?

    • Neutrophils: 50%-70%
    • Lymphocytes: 20%-40%
    • Monocytes: 2%-8%
    • Eosinophils: 1%-4%
    • Basophils: 0.5%-1%

  • What is the function of fibrin in blood?

    • Forms insoluble, cross-linked fibers
    • Blocks blood loss from small vessels

  • What role do complement proteins play in the body?

    • Important in inflammation
    • Help destroy microorganisms

  • How are blood cells observed histologically?

    • Spread a drop of blood on a slide
    • Stained with acidic (eosin) and basic (methylene blue) dyes

  • What are azurophilic granules?

    • Produce metachromasia in leukocytes
    • Stain cytoplasmic granules containing charged proteins

  • What are the characteristics of erythrocytes?

    • Terminally differentiated
    • Lack nuclei
    • Filled with hemoglobin

  • What is anemia?

    • Condition of low erythrocyte concentration
    • Symptoms include lethargy, fatigue, shortness of breath

  • What is sickle cell anemia caused by?

    • Homozygous mutation in hemoglobin
    • Causes RBCs to become deformed and rigid

  • What is erythrocytosis?

    • Increased concentration of erythrocytes
    • Can occur in high altitudes due to low O2 tension

  • What is the primary component of plasma?

    • Water (~92% of plasma)
    • Acts as a solvent for formed elements and solutes

  • What is the function of albumin in plasma?

    • Retains fluid in microvasculature
    • Contributes to blood viscosity

  • What do globulins do in the bloodstream?

    • ฮฑ-Globulins transport lipids
    • ฮฒ-Globulins transport iron
    • ฮณ-Globulins are antibodies

  • What is the role of fibrinogen?

    • Precursor of fibrin
    • Participates in blood coagulation (clotting)

  • What are the other solutes found in blood plasma?

    • Electrolytes, nutrients, respiratory gases, wastes

  • What is the importance of electrolytes in blood plasma?

    • Establish and maintain membrane potentials
    • Maintain pH balance

  • What is the function of nutrients in blood plasma?

    • Energy source
    • Precursors for synthesizing other molecules

  • How is oxygen transported in the blood?

    • <blockquote>

      2% dissolved in plasma

      </blockquote>
    • 98% bound to hemoglobin in erythrocytes

  • How is carbon dioxide transported in the blood?

    • ~7% dissolved in plasma
    • ~66% converted to bicarbonate (HCO3โˆ’)

  • What are wastes in blood plasma?

    • Breakdown products of metabolism
    • Serve no function, just being transported

  • What are waste products in blood plasma?

    • Lactic acid
    • Creatinine
    • Urea
    • Bilirubin
    • Ammonia

  • What is the composition of blood plasma?

    • Water (~92%)
    • Plasma proteins (~7%)
    • Other solutes (~1%)

  • What are the functions of blood plasma?

    • Solvent for formed elements
    • Buffers pH changes
    • Retains fluid in microvasculature
    • Contributes to blood viscosity

  • What are the types of globulins?

    • a-Globulins: transport lipids
    • b-Globulins: transport iron ions
    • y-Globulins: antibodies

  • What is the role of fibrinogen in blood?

    Precursor of fibrin, essential for blood clotting.

  • What is the significance of oxygen in blood?

    Needed for aerobic cellular respiration; 98% is bound to hemoglobin.

  • How are blood cells studied histologically?

    By preparing smears from blood drops on microscope slides.

  • What stains are used for blood smears?

    • Eosin (acidic)
    • Methylene blue (basic)
    • Giemsa
    • Wright stain

  • What are erythrocytes?

    Terminally differentiated red blood cells filled with hemoglobin, lacking nuclei.

  • What are the symptoms of anemia?

    • Lethargy
    • Shortness of breath
    • Fatigue
    • Skin pallor
    • Heart palpitations

  • What causes sickle cell anemia?

    Homozygous mutation causing an amino acid substitution in hemoglobin.

  • What can cause erythrocytosis?

    Physiologic adaptation in high altitudes where O2 tension is low.

  • What is the normal concentration of erythrocytes in women?

    Approximately 3.9-5.5 million per microliter (ฮผL).

  • What is the normal concentration of erythrocytes in men?

    Approximately 4.1-6.0 million per microliter (ฮผL).

  • What is the shape of human erythrocytes?

    Flexible biconcave discs.

  • What is the diameter of a human erythrocyte?

    Approximately 7.5 ฮผm.

  • Why is the biconcave shape of erythrocytes important?

    Provides a large surface-to-volume ratio and facilitates gas exchange.

  • What is the composition of the erythrocyte plasmalemma?

    About 40% lipid, 10% carbohydrate, and 50% protein.

  • What is rouleaux?

    Stacks of erythrocytes that may adhere loosely in larger blood vessels.

  • What is the composition of the erythrocyte plasmalemma?

    • 40% lipid
    • 10% carbohydrate
    • 50% protein

  • What types of proteins are predominant in the erythrocyte membrane?

    • Integral membrane proteins
    • Peripheral proteins

  • What is the function of spectrin in erythrocytes?

    Stabilizes the membrane and maintains cell shape.

  • What is the primary function of hemoglobin in erythrocytes?

    Carries O2 and CO2 in the blood.

  • What happens to erythrocytes after 120 days in circulation?

    They are recognized and removed by macrophages due to membrane defects.

  • What are the two major groups of leukocytes?

    • Granulocytes
    • Agranulocytes

  • What characterizes granulocytes?

    Possess abundant cytoplasmic granules and polymorphic nuclei.

  • What are the three types of granulocytes?

    • Neutrophils
    • Eosinophils
    • Basophils

  • What is a key feature of agranulocytes?

    Lack specific granules but contain some azurophilic granules.

  • What are the two types of agranulocytes?

    • Lymphocytes
    • Monocytes

  • What is the role of leukocytes in the body?

    Defense against invading microorganisms.

  • What triggers the loosening of intercellular junctions in endothelial cells?

    Cytokines released from various sources

  • What protein appears on endothelial cells after exocytosis?

    P-selectin

  • How do leukocytes interact with P-selectin?

    They display glycosylated ligands, causing them to slow down and roll

  • What is diapedesis?

    Process where leukocytes migrate out of venules into surrounding tissue

  • What is chemotaxis in relation to neutrophils?

    Chemical mediators attract neutrophils to bacteria, causing rapid accumulation

  • What is the normal range of leukocytes in healthy adults?

    4500-11,000 leukocytes per microliter of blood

  • What percentage of circulating leukocytes do mature neutrophils constitute?

    50%-70%

  • What is the composition of the erythrocyte plasmalemma?

    • 40% lipid
    • 10% carbohydrate
    • 50% protein

  • What proteins are included in the erythrocyte membrane?

    • Integral membrane proteins
    • Ion channels
    • Band 3 protein
    • Glycophorin A

  • How do erythrocytes transport oxygen and carbon dioxide?

    Through hemoglobin forming oxyhemoglobin and carbaminohemoglobin

  • What is the typical lifespan of human erythrocytes?

    About 120 days

  • How do erythrocytes generate energy?

    Through anaerobic glycolysis

  • What happens to erythrocytes before being released into circulation?

    They undergo terminal differentiation, losing nucleus and organelles

  • What is the average lifespan of human erythrocytes in circulation?

    120 days

  • What happens to senescent RBCs?

    They are removed by macrophages in the spleen, liver, and bone marrow.

  • What is the life span of granulocytes?

    Only a few days.

  • What is the primary energy source for granulocytes?

    They depend largely on glycolysis.

  • What distinguishes agranulocytes from granulocytes?

    Agranulocytes lack specific granules but contain some azurophilic granules.

  • What are the two main types of agranulocytes?

    • Lymphocytes
    • Monocytes

  • What triggers the migration of leukocytes to tissues?

    Factors called cytokines are released.

  • What is the process called when leukocytes exit blood vessels?

    Diapedesis.

  • What is chemotaxis?

    It is the attraction of leukocytes to bacteria via chemical mediators.

  • What is the normal range of leukocytes in healthy adults?

    4500-11,000 per microliter of blood.

  • What is the normal range of leukocytes in healthy adults?

    4500-11,000 leukocytes per microliter of blood

  • What percentage of circulating leukocytes are neutrophils?

    50-70%

  • What are the major functions of neutrophils?

    • Kill and phagocytose bacteria

  • What is the life span of mature neutrophils?

    1-4 days

  • How do eosinophils function in the immune response?

    • Kill helminthic and other parasites
    • Modulate local inflammation

  • What is the role of basophils in the immune system?

    • Modulate inflammation
    • Release histamine during allergy

  • What is the primary function of lymphocytes?

    E

  • What is the life span of monocytes?

    Hours to years

  • What are granulocytes?

    • Neutrophils
    • Eosinophils
    • Basophils

  • What are agranulocytes?

    • Lymphocytes
    • Monocytes

  • What are the characteristics of neutrophil nuclei?

    3-5 lobes

  • What is the color of neutrophil granules?

    Faint/light pink

  • What happens to neutrophils in an anaerobic environment?

    They can kill bacteria and help clean up debris

  • What is the half-life of neutrophils in blood?

    6-8 hours

  • How do neutrophils engulf bacteria?

    By pseudopodia and internalizing them in phagosomes

  • What is a key role of activated neutrophils in the inflammatory response?

    Release chemokines to attract other leukocytes

  • What is the role of specific secondary granules in neutrophils?

    Secretion of ECM-degrading enzymes and bactericidal proteins

  • What is the lifespan of neutrophils in connective tissues?

    1-4 days before undergoing apoptosis

  • What do neutrophils do to bacteria?

    Engulf bacteria using pseudopodia and internalize them in phagosomes

  • What happens to phagosomes after bacteria are engulfed?

    Specific granules fuse and discharge contents into phagosomes, which are then acidified

  • What is produced during the burst of O2 consumption in neutrophils?

    Superoxide anions (O2โ€“) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)

  • What is the role of myeloperoxidase (MPO) in neutrophils?

    Generates hypochlorite and other toxic agents to bacteria

  • What is the function of lysozyme in neutrophils?

    Degrades components of bacterial cell walls

  • What are defensins?

    Small cysteine-rich proteins that disrupt cell membranes of bacteria

  • What is the diameter of neutrophils in blood smears?

    12-15 ฮผm

  • What is a characteristic of neutrophil nuclei?

    Two to five lobes linked by thin nuclear extensions

  • What happens to neutrophils during diapedesis?

    Become amoeboid and highly active

  • What are azurophilic granules?

    Large dense vesicles in neutrophils that kill and degrade microorganisms

  • What can a single nucleotide substitution in the hemoglobin gene cause?

    Sickle cell disease due to polymerization of hemoglobin

  • What are features of sickle cell disease?

    Greater blood viscosity and poor microvascular circulation

  • What is the role of neutrophils during diapedesis?

    Neutrophils become amoeboid and highly active, adhering to ECM substrates like collagen.

  • What is chemotaxis in neutrophils?

    It is the process by which neutrophils actively pursue bacterial cells at infection sites.

  • What are the two main types of granules in neutrophils?

    • Azurophilic primary granules (lysosomes)
    • Specific secondary granules

  • What is the function of azurophilic granules?

    They kill and degrade engulfed microorganisms using proteases and antibacterial proteins.

  • What does myeloperoxidase (MPO) do?

    Generates hypochlorite and other toxic agents to bacteria.

  • What is the function of lysozyme?

    Degrades components of bacterial cell walls.

  • What are defensins?

    Small cysteine-rich proteins that disrupt cell membranes of bacteria and other microorganisms.

  • What can result from neutrophil defects?

    Increased frequency and persistence of bacterial infections.

  • What do specific secondary granules secrete?

    ECM-degrading enzymes like collagenases and bactericidal proteins.

  • How do activated neutrophils contribute to inflammation?

    They release chemokines and cytokines, attracting other leukocytes and directing tissue activities.

  • What is the significance of glycogen in neutrophils?

    It is broken down into glucose for energy via the glycolytic pathway.

  • What is the half-life of neutrophils in blood?

    6-8 hours.

  • What happens to neutrophils after they die?

    They undergo apoptosis after 1-4 days in connective tissues.

  • What is the process of phagocytosis in neutrophils?

    Neutrophils engulf bacteria using pseudopodia and internalize them in phagosomes.

  • What happens during the burst of O2 consumption in neutrophils?

    Forms superoxide anions and hydrogen peroxide for microbial killing.

  • What role does lactoferrin play in neutrophils?

    Binds iron, limiting its availability to bacteria and causing their death.

  • What forms a viscous fluid during the immune response?

    Apoptotic neutrophils, bacteria, semidigested material, and tissue fluid.

  • What forms a viscous yellow fluid known as pus?

    • Apoptotic neutrophils
    • Bacteria
    • Semidigested material
    • Tissue fluid

  • What is a neutrophil dysfunction associated with actin?

    Reduced neutrophil motility due to abnormal actin polymerization.

  • What happens with NADPH oxidase deficiency in neutrophils?

    Failure to produce H2O2 and hypochlorite, reducing microbial killing power.

  • What are the major events of neutrophil migration during inflammation?

    1. Local macrophages release proinflammatory cytokines.
    2. Neutrophils bind selectins and roll on endothelium.
    3. New integrins expressed, and ICAM-1 appears on endothelium.
    4. Firm adhesion occurs via integrins.
    5. Neutrophils migrate through the endothelium by diapedesis.

  • What do eosinophils primarily combat?

    Eosinophils primarily target parasitic worms or helminths.

  • What is the percentage of eosinophils in leukocytes?

    Eosinophils constitute 1%-4% of leukocytes.

  • What are the characteristics of eosinophils?

    • Bilobed nucleus
    • Abundant acidophilic specific granules
    • Granules stain pink or red

  • What proteins do eosinophilic granules contain?

    Major basic proteins (MBP) and eosinophilic peroxidase.

  • What role do eosinophils play in inflammation?

    They modulate inflammatory responses by releasing chemokines, cytokines, and lipid mediators.

  • Where are eosinophils particularly abundant?

    In connective tissue of the intestinal lining and sites of chronic inflammation.

  • What do eosinophils remove from interstitial fluid?

    Antigen-antibody complexes

  • Where are eosinophils particularly abundant?

    Connective tissue of the intestinal lining and sites of chronic inflammation

  • What triggers the rapid immigration of leukocytes?

    Cytokines and cell binding proteins

  • What do local macrophages release during inflammation?

    Proinflammatory cytokines like IL-1 and TNF-a

  • What is the role of selectins in neutrophil migration?

    They cause neutrophils to adhere loosely to the endothelium

  • What is pus primarily composed of?

    Semidigested material and tissue fluid

  • What is a common dysfunction of neutrophils?

    Failure of actin polymerization, reducing motility

  • What percentage of leukocytes do eosinophils constitute?

    1%-4%

  • What is a key characteristic of eosinophils?

    Bilobed nucleus and large acidophilic granules

  • What do major basic proteins (MBP) in eosinophils do?

    They help kill parasitic worms or helminths

  • What do eosinophils release to modulate inflammatory responses?

    Chemokines, cytokines, and lipid mediators

  • What facilitates the migration of neutrophils through the endothelium?

    Integrins and their ligands provide firm adhesion

  • What is the process called when neutrophils migrate between endothelial cells?

    Diapedesis

  • What role do eosinophils play in the body?

    • Modulate inflammatory responses
    • Release chemokines, cytokines, and lipid mediators
    • Increase during helminthic infections and allergies
    • Remove antigen-antibody complexes by phagocytosis

  • Where are eosinophils typically abundant?

    • Connective tissue of intestinal lining
    • Sites of chronic inflammation (e.g., lung tissues in asthma)

  • What is eosinophilia?

    An increase in eosinophils in blood associated with allergic reactions and helminthic infections.

  • What substances do eosinophils produce?

    • Modulate inflammation
    • Inactivate leukotrienes and histamine

  • What effect do corticosteroids have on eosinophils?

    They rapidly decrease the number of blood eosinophils by interfering with their release from bone marrow.

  • What are the characteristics of basophils?

    • Diameter: 12-15 ฮผm
    • Less than 1% of circulating leukocytes
    • Nucleus divided into two lobes

  • What do basophils contain in their granules?

    • Heparin
    • Histamine
    • Platelet activating factor
    • Eosinophil chemotactic factor

  • How do basophils contribute to inflammation?

    They supplement mast cells and secrete granules in response to antigens and allergens.

  • What is anaphylaxis?

    A severe systemic response to allergens, leading to vasodilation and a drop in blood pressure due to rapid degranulation of basophils and mast cells.

  • What are the effects of immediate hypersensitivity?

    Can result in bronchial asthma, hives, rhinitis, conjunctivitis, or allergic gastroenteritis.

  • What are lymphocytes?

    The most numerous agranulocytes with spherical nuclei, constituting about one-third of leukocytes.

  • How can mature lymphocytes be subdivided?

    By distinctive surface molecules called CD markers

  • What are the major classes of lymphocytes?

    • B lymphocytes
    • Helper T lymphocytes

  • What are neutrophils characterized by?

    • Multi-lobulated nuclei
    • Dynamic nuclear shape
    • Diameter of 12-15 ฮผm

  • What do eosinophils indicate when increased in blood?

    • Eosinophilia
    • Associated with allergic reactions
    • Linked to helminthic infections

  • Where are eosinophils typically found in patients with eosinophilia?

    • Connective tissues under epithelia of:
    • Bronchi
    • Gastrointestinal tract
    • Uterus
    • Vagina

  • What hormone decreases the number of blood eosinophils?

    Corticosteroids

  • What are basophils?

    • Diameter of 12-15 ฮผm
    • Less than 1% of leukocytes
    • Nucleus divided into two lobes

  • What do basophilic granules contain?

    • Heparin
    • Histamine
    • Various mediators of inflammation

  • What role do basophils play in inflammation?

    They supplement the functions of mast cells

  • What do basophils catalyze in the immune response?

    Production of lipid-derived proinflammatory factors called leukotrienes.

  • What do basophils and mast cells have in common?

    • Metachromatic granules containing heparin and histamine
    • Surface receptors for immunoglobulin E (IgE)
    • Secrete granular components in response to antigens and allergens

  • What triggers the release of inflammatory mediators in basophils and mast cells?

    Allergen binds to receptor-bound IgE molecules, causing cross-linking and rapid exocytosis of cytoplasmic granules.

  • What are the major classes of lymphocytes?

    • B lymphocytes
    • Helper T lymphocytes (CD4+)
    • Cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CD8+)
    • Natural killer (NK) cells

  • Where do T lymphocytes differentiate?

    In the thymus, unlike B cells and other circulating leukocytes which mature in the bone marrow.

  • What is the size range of lymphocytes?

    Small lymphocytes: similar to RBCs; Medium/Large lymphocytes: 9-18 ฮผm in diameter.

  • What are lymphomas?

    Disorders involving neoplastic proliferation of lymphocytes or failure to undergo apoptosis, considered malignant.

  • What characterizes small lymphocytes?

    Spherical nuclei with highly condensed chromatin and a thin rim of scant cytoplasm.

  • How long do lymphocytes typically survive?

    Varies by function; some live a few days, others for many years in circulation or tissues.

  • What are lymphomas considered?

    Malignant

  • What is the function of specific granules in neutrophils?

    Undergo exocytosis to release enzymes and bactericidal factors

  • What do azurophilic granules contain?

    Components to kill engulfed bacteria

  • What is the nucleus structure of a neutrophil?

    Lobulated

  • What are monocytes precursors to?

    Macrophages, osteoclasts, microglia

  • What is the diameter of circulating monocytes?

    12-15 ฮผm

  • What is the cytoplasm color of monocytes in stained smears?

    Bluish-gray

  • What occurs during extravasation?

    Accumulation of immigrating monocytes in inflammation

  • What are platelets also known as?

    Thrombocytes

  • What is the size of blood platelets?

    2-4 ฮผm in diameter

  • How do platelets originate?

    From cytoplasmic processes of giant polyploid bone marrow cells

  • What is the role of macrophages in inflammation?

    Immune defense and tissue repair

  • What characterizes chronic inflammation?

    Continuous recruitment of monocytes and macrophages

  • What are eosinophils characterized by?

    • Bilobed nuclei
    • Coarse cytoplasmic granules
    • Brightly eosinophilic specific granules
    • Azurophilic granules

  • What is the size range of monocytes?

    12-15 um in diameter

  • What do monocytes develop into?

    • Macrophages
    • Osteoclasts
    • Microglia

  • What is the significance of monocytes in the immune system?

    They are antigen-presenting cells involved in immune defense and tissue repair.

  • What is the lifespan of circulating platelets?

    About 10 days

  • What is the normal range of platelet counts in blood?

    150,000 to 400,000/ฮผL

  • What are the two zones of a platelet?

    • Hyalomere (lightly stained peripheral zone)
    • Granulomere (darker central zone rich in granules)

  • What occurs during extravasation of monocytes?

    Accumulation of immigrating monocytes during early inflammation.

  • What happens to macrophages during acute inflammation?

    They usually undergo apoptosis or leave the site.

  • What is the role of platelets in the body?

    They promote blood clotting and help repair minor tears in blood vessels.

  • What is the function of platelets in blood loss control?

    • Form a platelet plug through primary aggregation
    • Release adhesive glycoprotein and ADP for secondary aggregation

  • What are the two systems of membrane channels in platelets?

    • Open canalicular system
    • Dense tubular system

  • What do delta granules in platelets contain?

    • ADP
    • ATP
    • Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine)

  • What do alpha granules in platelets contain?

    • Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)
    • Platelet factor 4
    • Other platelet-specific proteins

  • What is the normal platelet count range in blood?

    150,000 to 400,000/uL

  • What is the lifespan of circulating platelets?

    About 10 days

  • What are the two types of platelet aggregation?

    • Primary aggregation
    • Secondary aggregation

  • What is the appearance of platelets in stained blood smears?

    Often appear in clumps, discoid shape with a hyalomere and granulomere

  • What is the role of the glycocalyx in platelets?

    Involved in adhesion and activation during blood coagulation

  • What is the structure of a platelet?

    • Peripheral marginal bundle of microtubules and microfilaments
    • Central granulomere rich in granules

  • What is the function of the open canalicular system in platelets?

    Facilitates uptake of factors from plasma.

  • What do dense tubular system vesicles in platelets store?

    Ca ext{**} ions.

  • What is the process of degranulation in platelets?

    Rapid exocytosis of proteins upon activation.

  • What do basophils contain that modulates immune response?

    Specific basophilic granules.

  • What is the diameter range of delta granules in platelets?

    250-300 nm.

  • What is the role of platelets in primary aggregation?

    Adhere to collagen in the vascular wall to form a platelet plug.

  • What induces secondary aggregation in platelets?

    Release of adhesive glycoprotein and ADP.

  • What proteins promote blood coagulation during platelet aggregation?

    Fibrinogen, von Willebrand factor, and platelet factor 4.

  • What is the role of platelet factor 4?

    Acts as a chemokine for monocytes, neutrophils, and fibroblasts.

  • What causes clot retraction?

    Activity of platelet-derived actin and myosin.

  • What enzyme dissolves the clot during clot removal?

    Plasmin.

  • How do aspirin and NSAIDs affect platelet function?

    They inhibit prostaglandin synthesis needed for aggregation.

  • What is a common bleeding disorder related to platelets?

    Autosomal recessive glycoprotein Ib deficiency.

  • What are lymphocytes classified as?

    Agranulocytes without specific granules.

  • What is the size range of lymphocytes in blood?

    6 to 15 ฮผm in diameter.

  • What are the characteristics of lymphocytes?

    • Agranulocytes
    • Lack specific granules
    • Size ranges from 6 to 15 ฮผm
    • Classified as small, medium, and large

  • How do small lymphocytes compare to erythrocytes?

    Slightly larger than erythrocytes with a thin rim of cytoplasm around a spherical nucleus.

  • What distinguishes medium lymphocytes from erythrocytes?

    Medium lymphocytes are distinctly larger than erythrocytes.

  • What are the features of large lymphocytes?

    Much larger than erythrocytes; may represent activated cells returning to circulation.

  • What does a medium-sized lymphocyte contain?

    • Euchromatic nucleus (N)
    • Cytoplasm with mitochondria (M)
    • Free polysomes
    • Few dark lysosomes (azurophilic granules)

  • What is the process of blood coagulation?

    Involves platelet aggregation and cascade of plasma proteins forming a fibrin polymer, creating a thrombus.

  • What role does platelet factor 4 play?

    Acts as a chemokine for monocytes, neutrophils, and fibroblasts; stimulates fibroblast proliferation by PDGF.

  • What is clot retraction?

    The clot bulges into the vessel lumen and then contracts due to platelet-derived actin and myosin.

  • How is a clot removed from the body?

    The clot is dissolved by proteolytic enzymes after new tissue restores the endothelium.

  • What effect do Aspirin and NSAIDs have on blood coagulation?

    They inhibit platelet function and blood coagulation by blocking prostaglandin synthesis needed for aggregation.

  • What is a bleeding disorder related to platelets?

    A rare autosomal recessive glycoprotein Ib deficiency affecting platelet binding to collagen.