What are the components and functions of the immune system?
Defense, homeostasis, and surveillance.
What are the 5 types of immunoglobulins?
IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD, IgE.
What are the 4 types of hypersensitivity reactions?
Type I, Type II, Type III, Type IV.
What are the clinical manifestations of a systemic anaphylactic reaction?
Rapid onset, difficulty breathing, swelling, hives, and low blood pressure.
What is the assessment and interprofessional care for chronic allergies?
Identify allergens, manage symptoms, and provide education.
What are the etiologic factors of autoimmune diseases?
Genetic predisposition, environmental triggers, and immune system dysregulation.
What are the categories of immunodeficiency disorders?
Primary and secondary immunodeficiencies.
What is the relationship between the human leukocyte antigen system and diseases?
It plays a role in transplant rejection and autoimmune diseases.
What are the types of rejections after transplantation?
Hyperacute, acute, and chronic rejection.
What are the types and side effects of immunosuppressive therapy?
Corticosteroids, calcineurin inhibitors; side effects include increased infection risk.
What is an antigen?
A substance that elicits an immune response, often protein-based.
What is innate immunity?
First-line defense present at birth, involving nonspecific responses.
What is acquired immunity?
Immunity developed through exposure to foreign substances, either active or passive.
What is active acquired immunity?
Immunity resulting from infection and subsequent antibody development.
What is the primary role of innate immunity?
To provide immediate defense against pathogens.
What is active acquired immunity?
Natural contact with an antigen or immunization with an antigen (e.g., vaccines).
What is passive acquired immunity?
Receiving antibodies rather than making them; can be natural or artificial.
How does natural passive immunity occur?
Through transplacental transfer of immunoglobulins from mother to fetus.
What is the benefit of passive acquired immunity?
Immediate effect of antibodies received.
What is a disadvantage of passive immunity?
It is short-lived because the person does not produce antibodies or memory cells.
What are the central lymphoid organs?
Thymus gland and bone marrow.
What are peripheral lymphoid organs?
Lymph nodes, tonsils, spleen, and associated lymphoid tissues.
Where are lymphocytes made?
In the bone marrow.
What is the role of the thymus in immune response?
Involved in the differentiation and maturation of T lymphocytes.
What happens to the thymus after puberty?
It shrinks and is replaced by fat, producing fewer T lymphocytes.
What are the two major functions of lymph nodes?
Filtration of foreign material and circulation of lymphocytes.
What is the primary function of the spleen?
Filtering foreign antigens from the blood.
What is the role of Langerhans cells in the skin?
They help initiate an immune response; depletion leads to delayed hypersensitivity.
What does the mononuclear phagocyte system include?
Monocytes in blood and macrophages throughout the body.
What is the role of mononuclear phagocytes?
Capturing, processing, and presenting antigens to lymphocytes.
How do macrophages trigger an immune response?
By presenting highly immunogenic antigens to T or B lymphocytes.
Where do lymphocytes differentiate after being made?
They migrate to peripheral organs.
What triggers an immune response?
An immunogenic substance presented to circulating T or B lymphocytes triggers an immune response.
Where are lymphocytes made?
Lymphocytes are made in the bone marrow.
What do B lymphocytes differentiate into when activated?
B lymphocytes differentiate into plasma cells when activated.
What do plasma cells produce?
Plasma cells produce antibodies (immunoglobulins).
Where do T lymphocytes mature?
T lymphocytes mature in the thymus.
What hormones stimulate T lymphocyte maturation?
Thymosin stimulates the maturation and differentiation of T lymphocytes.
What percentage of circulating lymphocytes are T cells?
T cells make up 70% to 80% of circulating lymphocytes.
What are the two categories of T lymphocytes?
The two categories are T cytotoxic and T helper cells.
What do T cytotoxic cells do?
T cytotoxic cells attack antigens on the cell membrane of foreign pathogens.
What is the role of cytokines in the immune response?
Cytokines are intracellular messengers that provide communication among cells.
What do B cells do in response to T helper cell stimulation?
B cells multiply and make antibodies in response to T helper cell stimulation.
What is the function of memory B and T cells?
Memory B and T cells respond quickly if the same virus attacks again.
What is the primary immune response associated with?
The primary immune response is associated with IgM antibodies.
Which immunoglobulin crosses the placenta?
IgG is the only immunoglobulin that crosses the placenta.
What is the role of IgE?
IgE causes symptoms of allergic reactions and aids in defense against parasitic infections.
What do CD antigens classify?
CD antigens classify the antigenic characteristics of white blood cells (WBCs).
What do T cells attack on pathogens?
Antigens on the cell membrane of foreign pathogens.
What happens to some sensitized T cells after exposure to an antigen?
They remain as memory T cells.
What is the result of a second exposure to an antigen?
A more intense and rapid cell-mediated immune response.
What are T helper cells involved in?
Regulating cell-mediated immunity and the humoral antibody response.
What are the two subsets of T helper cells?
T}j1 cells and T}2 cells.
What do T}j1 cells stimulate?
Phagocyte-mediated ingestion and killing of microbes.
What do T}2 cells stimulate?
Eosinophil-mediated immunity, effective against parasites.
What type of cells are natural killer (NK) cells?
Large lymphocytes with many granules in their cytoplasm.
Do NK cells need prior sensitization?
No, they do not need prior sensitization.
What do NK cells recognize and kill?
Virus-infected cells, tumor cells, and transplanted grafts.
What is the role of dendritic cells in the immune system?
Capture antigens and transport them to T cells.
Where are dendritic cells found in the body?
Skin, lining of the nose, lungs, stomach, and intestine.
What do colony-stimulating factors (CSFs) stimulate?
Proliferation and differentiation of blood cells.
What does erythropoietin stimulate?
Erythroid progenitor cells in bone marrow to make red blood cells.
What is the function of granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF)?
Stimulates proliferation and differentiation of PMNs.
What do interferons (IFNs) do?
Inhibit viral replication and activate NK cells and macrophages.
What is the role of IL-1 in the immune system?
Promotes proliferation of B cells and activates T cells.
What does IL-2 activate?
T cells, NK cells, and macrophages.
What is the function of IL-4?
B-cell growth and differentiation; induces differentiation into T}2 cells.
What does IL-6 promote?
Differentiation of B cells into plasma cells and stimulates antibody secretion.
What is the role of Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF)?
Differentiates B cells into plasma cells, stimulates antibody secretion, induces fever, activates macrophages, promotes immune responses, and kills tumor cells.
What are cytokines?
Soluble factors secreted by WBCs that act as messengers among cell types, altering their proliferation, differentiation, and activity.
How many different cytokines are currently known?
More than 100 different cytokines.
What is the function of interleukins (ILs)?
Act as immunomodulatory factors.
What do colony-stimulating factors regulate?
They act as growth-regulating factors for hematopoietic cells.
What are interferons known for?
They are antiviral and immunomodulatory.
What is Erythropoietin used for?
Treats anemia related to chronic kidney disease, cancer, and chemotherapy.
What is the clinical use of G-CSF (filgrastim)?
Treats chemotherapy-induced neutropenia and promotes myeloid recovery after bone marrow transplantation.
What is the role of interferon in the immune response?
Helps the body's natural defenses attack tumors and viruses by inducing antiviral proteins.
What is the net effect of an inflammatory response?
Determined by a balance between proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory mediators.
What are the detrimental effects of cytokines?
Can contribute to chronic inflammation, autoimmune diseases, and sepsis.
What is the difference between humoral and cell-mediated immunity?
Humoral immunity involves antibodies, while cell-mediated immunity involves T cells and cellular responses.
What is the role of interferon (IFN) during a viral attack?
IFN serves as an intercellular messenger and induces the production of antiviral proteins, preventing viral replication.
What cells are involved in humoral immunity?
B lymphocytes are involved in humoral immunity.
What are the products of humoral immunity?
Antibodies are the products of humoral immunity.
What types of pathogens does humoral immunity protect against?
Humoral immunity protects against bacteria and extracellular viruses.
What are the examples of conditions related to humoral immunity?
Anaphylactic shock, atopic diseases, bacterial infection, and transfusion reaction are examples.
What is the first antibody type produced in a primary immune response?
IgM is the first type of antibody formed in a primary immune response.
What characterizes the secondary immune response?
The secondary immune response is faster, stronger, and longer-lasting than the primary response.
What is the primary antibody found in a secondary immune response?
IgG is the primary antibody found in a secondary immune response.
How does IgG provide immunity to newborns?
IgG crosses the placental membrane, providing passive acquired immunity for at least 3 months.
What is cell-mediated immunity?
Cell-mediated immunity is initiated through specific antigen recognition by T cells.
What types of pathogens are targeted by cell-mediated immunity?
Cell-mediated immunity targets intracellular pathogens, including viruses and some bacteria.
What is the significance of memory cells in the immune response?
Memory cells account for the memory of the first exposure and enable rapid antibody production upon re-exposure.
What is the role of cell-mediated immunity?
It provides immunity against pathogens that survive inside cells, fungal infections, rejection of transplanted tissues, contact hypersensitivity reactions, and tumor immunity.
What happens to the immune response with aging?
There is a decline in immune response function, leading to increased cancer incidence and susceptibility to infections in older adults.
What is the leading cause of death from infections in older adults?
Bacterial pneumonia is the leading cause of death from infections in older adults.
How does aging affect immunoglobulin levels?
Immunoglobulin levels decrease with age, leading to a suppressed humoral immune response.
What happens to the thymus with age?
The thymus shrinks with age, resulting in decreased numbers of T cells.
What is anergy?
Anergy is an immunodeficient condition characterized by a lack of or diminished reaction to an antigen.
What is immunocompetence?
Immunocompetence exists when the immune system can identify and destroy foreign substances.
What are hypersensitivity reactions?
Hypersensitivity reactions occur when the immune response overreacts against foreign antigens or self-tissue, causing tissue damage.
How are hypersensitivity reactions classified?
They can be classified by the source of the antigen, time sequence (immediate or delayed), or immunologic mechanisms.
What is Type I hypersensitivity?
Type I hypersensitivity is IgE-mediated reactions, such as anaphylactic reactions, occurring in sensitized individuals.
What triggers Type I hypersensitivity reactions?
Type I reactions are triggered by allergens like pollen, food, drugs, and dust.
What characterizes IgE antibodies in Type I reactions?
IgE antibodies attach to mast cells and basophils, leading to the release of potent mediators.
What are the four types of hypersensitivity reactions?
Types I, II, III are immediate; Type IV is delayed hypersensitivity related to cell-mediated immunity.
What type of hypersensitivity is Type III?
Immune-Complex
What type of hypersensitivity is Type IV?
Delayed Hypersensitivity
What antigens are involved in Type I hypersensitivity?
Pollen, food, drugs, dust, cell surface of RBCs
What is the rate of development for Type I hypersensitivity?
Immediate, minutes to hours
What complements are involved in Type I hypersensitivity?
Extracellular fungal, viral, bacterial
What is the mediators of injury for Type I hypersensitivity?
Histamine, leukotrienes, mast cells
What are examples of Type I hypersensitivity?
Allergic rhinitis, asthma, hives
What is the skin test reaction for Type I hypersensitivity?
Erythema and edema in 3-8 hours
What are the mediators of injury for Type II hypersensitivity?
Complement lysis, macrophages in tissues
What are examples of Type II hypersensitivity?
Goodpasture syndrome, Graves disease
What is the skin test reaction for Type II hypersensitivity?
No
What are the mediators of injury for Type III hypersensitivity?
Complement lysis, cytokines
What are examples of Type III hypersensitivity?
Acute glomerulonephritis, rheumatoid arthritis
What is the skin test reaction for Type III hypersensitivity?
Yes
What are the mediators of injury for Type IV hypersensitivity?
T cytotoxic cells, lysosomal enzymes
What are examples of Type IV hypersensitivity?
Contact dermatitis, TB test
What is the skin test reaction for Type IV hypersensitivity?
Erythema and edema in 24-48 hours
What is the role of IgE antibodies in allergic reactions?
They bind to mast cells and basophils.
What happens upon subsequent exposure to an allergen?
Allergen links with IgE on mast cells, triggering degranulation.
What are clinical symptoms of an allergic response?
Smooth muscle contraction, increased vascular permeability, itching.
What is anaphylaxis?
A severe allergic reaction that can be life-threatening.
What are initial symptoms of anaphylaxis?
Edema and itching at the exposure site.
What is the wheal-and-flare reaction?
A skin response characterized by a pale wheal and red flare.
What are the initial symptoms of an allergic reaction?
Edema and itching at the site of exposure to the allergen.
What can occur rapidly during an allergic reaction?
Shock.
What are the manifestations of shock?
Rapid, weak pulse; hypotension.
What are the allergic response mediators?
Anaphylatoxins, histamine, kinins, leukotrienes, platelet-activating factor, prostaglandins, serotonin.
What neurologic symptoms can occur during an allergic reaction?
Pruritus, headache, dizziness, paresthesia, feeling of impending doom.
What respiratory symptoms are associated with an allergic reaction?
Hoarseness, coughing, sensation of narrowed airway, wheezing, stridor, dyspnea, tachypnea, respiratory arrest.
What cardiovascular symptoms can occur during an allergic reaction?
Hypotension, dysrhythmias, tachycardia, cardiac arrest.
What gastrointestinal symptoms are associated with an allergic reaction?
Cramping, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea.
What are the clinical manifestations of a systemic anaphylactic reaction?
Rapid onset, difficulty breathing, swelling, hives, and low blood pressure.
What is the assessment and interprofessional care for chronic allergies?
Identify allergens, manage symptoms, and provide education.
What are the etiologic factors of autoimmune diseases?
Genetic predisposition, environmental triggers, and immune system dysregulation.
What is the relationship between the human leukocyte antigen system and diseases?
It plays a role in transplant rejection and autoimmune diseases.
What are the types and side effects of immunosuppressive therapy?
Corticosteroids, calcineurin inhibitors; side effects include increased infection risk.
What is acquired immunity?
Immunity developed through exposure to foreign substances, either active or passive.
What is active acquired immunity?
Immunity resulting from infection and subsequent antibody development.
What is active acquired immunity?
Natural contact with an antigen or immunization with an antigen (e.g., vaccines).
What is passive acquired immunity?
Receiving antibodies rather than making them; can be natural or artificial.
How does natural passive immunity occur?
Through transplacental transfer of immunoglobulins from mother to fetus.
What is a disadvantage of passive immunity?
It is short-lived because the person does not produce antibodies or memory cells.
What is the role of the thymus in immune response?
Involved in the differentiation and maturation of T lymphocytes.
What happens to the thymus after puberty?
It shrinks and is replaced by fat, producing fewer T lymphocytes.
What are the two major functions of lymph nodes?
Filtration of foreign material and circulation of lymphocytes.
What is the role of Langerhans cells in the skin?
They help initiate an immune response; depletion leads to delayed hypersensitivity.
What does the mononuclear phagocyte system include?
Monocytes in blood and macrophages throughout the body.
What is the role of mononuclear phagocytes?
Capturing, processing, and presenting antigens to lymphocytes.
How do macrophages trigger an immune response?
By presenting highly immunogenic antigens to T or B lymphocytes.
What triggers an immune response?
An immunogenic substance presented to circulating T or B lymphocytes triggers an immune response.
What do B lymphocytes differentiate into when activated?
B lymphocytes differentiate into plasma cells when activated.
What hormones stimulate T lymphocyte maturation?
Thymosin stimulates the maturation and differentiation of T lymphocytes.
What percentage of circulating lymphocytes are T cells?
T cells make up 70% to 80% of circulating lymphocytes.
What are the two categories of T lymphocytes?
The two categories are T cytotoxic and T helper cells.
What do T cytotoxic cells do?
T cytotoxic cells attack antigens on the cell membrane of foreign pathogens.
What is the role of cytokines in the immune response?
Cytokines are intracellular messengers that provide communication among cells.
What do B cells do in response to T helper cell stimulation?
B cells multiply and make antibodies in response to T helper cell stimulation.
What is the function of memory B and T cells?
Memory B and T cells respond quickly if the same virus attacks again.
What is the primary immune response associated with?
The primary immune response is associated with IgM antibodies.
Which immunoglobulin crosses the placenta?
IgG is the only immunoglobulin that crosses the placenta.
What is the role of IgE?
IgE causes symptoms of allergic reactions and aids in defense against parasitic infections.
What do CD antigens classify?
CD antigens classify the antigenic characteristics of white blood cells (WBCs).
What happens to some sensitized T cells after exposure to an antigen?
They remain as memory T cells.
What is the result of a second exposure to an antigen?
A more intense and rapid cell-mediated immune response.
What are T helper cells involved in?
Regulating cell-mediated immunity and the humoral antibody response.
What type of cells are natural killer (NK) cells?
Large lymphocytes with many granules in their cytoplasm.
What is the role of dendritic cells in the immune system?
Capture antigens and transport them to T cells.
Where are dendritic cells found in the body?
Skin, lining of the nose, lungs, stomach, and intestine.
What do colony-stimulating factors (CSFs) stimulate?
Proliferation and differentiation of blood cells.
What does erythropoietin stimulate?
Erythroid progenitor cells in bone marrow to make red blood cells.
What is the function of granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF)?
Stimulates proliferation and differentiation of PMNs.
What is the role of IL-1 in the immune system?
Promotes proliferation of B cells and activates T cells.
What is the function of IL-4?
B-cell growth and differentiation; induces differentiation into T}2 cells.
What does IL-6 promote?
Differentiation of B cells into plasma cells and stimulates antibody secretion.
What is the role of Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF)?
Differentiates B cells into plasma cells, stimulates antibody secretion, induces fever, activates macrophages, promotes immune responses, and kills tumor cells.
What are cytokines?
Soluble factors secreted by WBCs that act as messengers among cell types, altering their proliferation, differentiation, and activity.
What do colony-stimulating factors regulate?
They act as growth-regulating factors for hematopoietic cells.
What is Erythropoietin used for?
Treats anemia related to chronic kidney disease, cancer, and chemotherapy.
What is the clinical use of G-CSF (filgrastim)?
Treats chemotherapy-induced neutropenia and promotes myeloid recovery after bone marrow transplantation.
What is the role of interferon in the immune response?
Helps the body's natural defenses attack tumors and viruses by inducing antiviral proteins.
What is the net effect of an inflammatory response?
Determined by a balance between proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory mediators.
What are the detrimental effects of cytokines?
Can contribute to chronic inflammation, autoimmune diseases, and sepsis.
What is the difference between humoral and cell-mediated immunity?
Humoral immunity involves antibodies, while cell-mediated immunity involves T cells and cellular responses.
What is the role of interferon (IFN) during a viral attack?
IFN serves as an intercellular messenger and induces the production of antiviral proteins, preventing viral replication.
What types of pathogens does humoral immunity protect against?
Humoral immunity protects against bacteria and extracellular viruses.
What are the examples of conditions related to humoral immunity?
Anaphylactic shock, atopic diseases, bacterial infection, and transfusion reaction are examples.
What is the first antibody type produced in a primary immune response?
IgM is the first type of antibody formed in a primary immune response.
What characterizes the secondary immune response?
The secondary immune response is faster, stronger, and longer-lasting than the primary response.
What is the primary antibody found in a secondary immune response?
IgG is the primary antibody found in a secondary immune response.
How does IgG provide immunity to newborns?
IgG crosses the placental membrane, providing passive acquired immunity for at least 3 months.
What is cell-mediated immunity?
Cell-mediated immunity is initiated through specific antigen recognition by T cells.
What types of pathogens are targeted by cell-mediated immunity?
Cell-mediated immunity targets intracellular pathogens, including viruses and some bacteria.
What is the significance of memory cells in the immune response?
Memory cells account for the memory of the first exposure and enable rapid antibody production upon re-exposure.
What is the role of cell-mediated immunity?
It provides immunity against pathogens that survive inside cells, fungal infections, rejection of transplanted tissues, contact hypersensitivity reactions, and tumor immunity.
What happens to the immune response with aging?
There is a decline in immune response function, leading to increased cancer incidence and susceptibility to infections in older adults.
What is the leading cause of death from infections in older adults?
Bacterial pneumonia is the leading cause of death from infections in older adults.
How does aging affect immunoglobulin levels?
Immunoglobulin levels decrease with age, leading to a suppressed humoral immune response.
What happens to the thymus with age?
The thymus shrinks with age, resulting in decreased numbers of T cells.
What is anergy?
Anergy is an immunodeficient condition characterized by a lack of or diminished reaction to an antigen.
What is immunocompetence?
Immunocompetence exists when the immune system can identify and destroy foreign substances.
What are hypersensitivity reactions?
Hypersensitivity reactions occur when the immune response overreacts against foreign antigens or self-tissue, causing tissue damage.
How are hypersensitivity reactions classified?
They can be classified by the source of the antigen, time sequence (immediate or delayed), or immunologic mechanisms.
What is Type I hypersensitivity?
Type I hypersensitivity is IgE-mediated reactions, such as anaphylactic reactions, occurring in sensitized individuals.
What triggers Type I hypersensitivity reactions?
Type I reactions are triggered by allergens like pollen, food, drugs, and dust.
What characterizes IgE antibodies in Type I reactions?
IgE antibodies attach to mast cells and basophils, leading to the release of potent mediators.
What are the four types of hypersensitivity reactions?
Types I, II, III are immediate; Type IV is delayed hypersensitivity related to cell-mediated immunity.
What antigens are involved in Type I hypersensitivity?
Pollen, food, drugs, dust, cell surface of RBCs
What are the mediators of injury for Type II hypersensitivity?
Complement lysis, macrophages in tissues
What happens upon subsequent exposure to an allergen?
Allergen links with IgE on mast cells, triggering degranulation.
What are clinical symptoms of an allergic response?
Smooth muscle contraction, increased vascular permeability, itching.
What are the initial symptoms of an allergic reaction?
Edema and itching at the site of exposure to the allergen.
What are the allergic response mediators?
Anaphylatoxins, histamine, kinins, leukotrienes, platelet-activating factor, prostaglandins, serotonin.
What neurologic symptoms can occur during an allergic reaction?
Pruritus, headache, dizziness, paresthesia, feeling of impending doom.
What respiratory symptoms are associated with an allergic reaction?
Hoarseness, coughing, sensation of narrowed airway, wheezing, stridor, dyspnea, tachypnea, respiratory arrest.
What cardiovascular symptoms can occur during an allergic reaction?
Hypotension, dysrhythmias, tachycardia, cardiac arrest.
What gastrointestinal symptoms are associated with an allergic reaction?
Cramping, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea.
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